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AUTHOR: 


STUCKENBERG,  J.  H.  W. 


TITLE: 


THE  LIFE  OF  IMMANUEL 
KANT 

PLACE: 

LONDON 

DA  TE : 

1882 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 


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Stuckenberg,  John  Henry  WUburn,  1835-1903. 

The  life  of  Immanuel  Kant,  by  J.  H.  W.  Stuckenberg  * 
...     London,  Macmillan  and  eo.,  1882.  j 

xiv  p.,  1  l,  474  p. .  22^*^™.     port . 


u 


1.  Kant,  Immanuel,  1724-1804. 


Library  of  Congress  B2797.S3 


11-16874 


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THE    LIFE 


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J.  II.  W.  STUOKENBERG,  D.D. 

Late  Professor  in  Wittenberg  College,  Ohio 


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PJREFACE. 


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Within  one  hundred  years  after  the  publication  of  the 
*'  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason  "  no  biography  of  its  author 
has  appeared  in  the  English  language.  Even  in 
Germany,  where  his  philosophy  is  studied  so  exten- 
sively and  has  been  the  occasion  of  an  immense  number 
of  works,  but  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  life 
of  Kant,  and  the  biographies  of  him  are  far  from  being 
satisfactory.  It  is  not  difficult  to  discover  the  reasons 
for  the  neglect  of  the  biography  of  this  great  thinker 
and  eminent  scholar.  The  materials  for  such  a  work 
are  widely  scattered,  and  require  much  research ;  and 
one  may  glean  long  and  on  many  a  field,  and,  as  the 
result  of  his  labours,  bring  home  only  a  light  sheaf, 
and  even  that  nearly  all  straw.  The  difficulty  is  by 
no  means  over  when  the  materials  have  been  found. 
Not  only  are  there  numerous  conflicting  statements, 
owing  largely  to  the  contentions  occasioned  by  his 
philosophy  and  the  prejudices  which  they  aroused,  but 
there  is  also  a  lack  of  the  variety  and  incident  which 
are  commonly  regarded  as  essential  to  an  interesting 
biography.     Unfortunately,  the  friends  who  were  his 


VI 


PRKFACE. 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


biographers  were  not  critical,  neither  did  they  take 
the  trouble  to  make  researches  and  gather  the  mate- 
rials within  their  reach.  Their  books  are,  indeed,  very 
valuable  as  personal  reminiscences,  but  they  are  neither 
scholarly  nor  complete.  The  researches  made  since 
their  day,  especially  those  by  Schubert  (the  results  of 
which  are  given  in  his  book  on  '* Kant's  Leben"),  by 
Dr.  R.  Reicke  (*'  Kantiana  ''),  and  by  the  Kant  Society 
in  Konigsberg,  have  added  much  valuable  material ; 
but  a  German  biography  worthy  of  the  Critical  Philo- 
sopher is  still  a  desideratum. 

The  career  of  Kant  had  more  variety  than  is 
generally  supposed ;  his  life  was,  however,  that  of  the 
quiet  thinker,  and  we  must  not  expect  the  varied 
incidents  which  are  found  in  the  lives  of  statesmen 
and  warriors.  For  the  student  of  thought  and  the 
psychologist  this  fact  makes  it  all  the  more  interesting. 
The  intellectual  element  in  the  career  of  this  explorer 
of  the  reason,  undisturbed  by  the  ordinary  affairs  which 
generally  absorb  the  attention  of  men,  gives  this  life 
a  peculiar  charm  and  makes  its  study  specially 
profitable. 

The  philosopher  of  Konigsberg  was  too  great  to 
need  unmerited  praise.  A  colleague,  in  dehvering  his 
funeral  oration,  said,  ''  Kant  himself  hated  all  flattery, 
and  abhorred  all  untruth.  Should  not  then  the  truth, 
the  pure,  unadulterated  truth  serve  us  as  our  only 
guiding  star  ?  "  Our  age  is  free  from  the  prejudice 
and  bitterness  excited  by  the  advent  of  the  Critical 
Philosopliy ;  and  one  hundred  years  after  the  appear- 
ance of  the  ''  Kritik  *'  we  can  calmly  contemplate  its 


author,  and  weigh  impartially  the  testimony  for  and 
against  him.     However  profound  the  reverence  which 
is  inspired  by  a  great  name  and  exalted  virtues,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  biographer  to  use  honestly  the  materials 
found    after     conscientious   research.     If    there    are 
paradoxes,  inconsistencies,  and  weaknesses,  they  should 
no   more    be   hid   than    the   excellencies    should    be 
obscured  ;  but  there  ought  to  be  careful  discrimination 
between  the  exceptional  failings,  which  are  found  in 
the  best  lives,  and  the  exalted  principles  and  motives, 
which  are  the  rule.     The  distinction  between  biography 
and  fiction  is  easily  obliterated  when  the  greatness  of 
the  subject  has  elements  of  the  sublime,  and  when  the 
temptation  to  add  to  the  interest  of  the  description  by 
means   of   exaggerations   is   strong.     One   of  Kant's 
biographers  says,  "  His  mind  had  embraced  the  whole 
domain   of  human   knowledge,   and    everywhere  had 
entered  into  the   most  minute  details.     There  is  no 
object  within  the  sphere  of  the  serious  sciences,  as  well 
as  of  common  life,  which  he  did  not  subject  to  exact 
investigation,  and  of  which  he  did  not  know  all  that  was 
worth   kno'wing."     This,    and    much  more  that  was 
written  about  the  profound  thinker  who  needed  no 
eulogies,  is  not  biography,  but  hero-worship.     Instead 
of  desiring  such  hyperbole,  the  true  admirer  of  the 
author  of  the  Critical  system  will  agree  with  the  philo- 
sopher Herbart,  who  said  of  Kant,  "  We  can  show  no 
honour   to  the  sincere    inquirer   after  truth,    at   the 
expense  of  truth ;"  and  with  Bouterwek,  also  referring 
to  him,  ''  Merit  shines  brightest  in  its  own  light  where 
no  desire  to  deify  envelops  it  in  clouds  of  incense." 


1' 


VIU 


PREFACE. 


Kant  is  known  chiefly  as  the  author  of  the  "  Kritik  of 
Pure    Reason."     In   giving   an   account   of  his    life, 
however,  a   much   more  comprehensive  view   of  him 
must  be  taken ;  he  must  be  considered  in  the  various 
relations  he  sustained.     As  his  works  culminated  in 
ethics  and  theology,   and  were   intended  to  establish 
these  on  a  firm  basis,  his  moral  and  religious  views 
deserve  more  attention    than    they  generally   receive 
from  English  writers  on  his  philosophy,  especially  since 
they  are  so   intimately  connected   with   his   life.     A 
critical  discussion  of  his  abstruse  philosophy  would  be 
out  of  place  in  a  biography.     The  English  reader  has 
access  to  excellent  works  on  the  Kantian  system,  and 
others,  as  well  as  translations  of  Kant's  books,  are  in 
process  of  preparation.     This  biography  aims  to  con- 
centrate  all  the  light  on  the  man  himself  and  his  life. 
The  great  interest  now  taken  in  Kant's  philosophy  in 
England  and  America  justifies  the  hope  that  the  life  of 
the  Father  of  German  metaphysics  will  be  welcomed 
by  English  readers.     If  his  works  throw  light  on  his 
life,  it  will  also  be  found  that  his  life  aids  materially 
in  understanding  his  works. 

While  the  student  of  the  Critical  system  is  naturally 
expected  to  take  a  special  interest  in  its  author,  this 
biography  is  also  intended  for  students,  and  scholars  in 
general,  and  for  all  who  take  an  interest  in  intellec- 
tual conflicts  and  triumphs.  As  this  broad  aim  has 
determined  the  character  of  the  book,  some  things 
may  be  found  in  it  which  the  student  of  the  Critical 
Philosophy  might  be  willing  to  dispense  with,  but  which 
the  more  general  reader  will  find  indispensable.     As 


PREFACE. 


IX 


Kant  should  be  studied  in  the  light  of  his  times,  much 
contemporary  history  has  been  considered  in  the  pre- 
paration of  this  book.  The  thoughtful  reader  will 
prefer  to  consider  the  philosopher  in  his  relation  to  his 
age,  rather  than  to  view  him  in  an  isolation  which 
would  place  him  in  a  false  light. 

I  am  indebted  chiefly  to  the  Royal  Library  of  Berlin 
for  the  materials  used  in  preparing  this  biography. 
The  principal  authorities  are  referred  to  in  the 
Appendix,  especially  in  the  first  note. 

All  the  translations  from  Kant's  works  are  made 
directly  from  the  original.  I  have  generally  used 
"  Kritik"  to  designate  the  ''  Kritik  of  Puro  Reason." 
Unless  otherwise  stated,  "mile"  always  designates 
the  English  mile. 

The  picture  of  Kant  represents  the  philosopher  at 
the  age  of  sixty- seven,  the  original  having  been 
painted  by  Dobler  in  1791. 

This  biography  was  intended  to  appear  during 
the  Centennial  year  of  the  "  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason ;" 
but  the  work  was  so  much  more  laborious,  and 
required  so'  much  more  time,  than  was  anticipated, 
that  this  was  found  to  be  impossible. 


Berlin,  Hegel  Platz  2. 
Jan.  16,  1882. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

rant's  boyhood  and  early  surroundings,  1724 — 1740. 

Konigsberg — Relatives — Home    influence — The    Pastor— Pie- 
-    tism — The  Gymnasium — Its  rector,   religious  influence,  and 
intellectual    advantages — His    speciality — Special    friends — 
Sensitiveness — General  character  of  his  early  life 


PAOB 


CHAPTER  II. 


student  in  the  university,     beginning  of  authorship. 

FAMILY  TUTOR.        1740~l7o5. 

Change  in  the  Government — University  of  Konigsberg — Matri- 
culated as  Student  of  Theology — Studies — Favourite  teacher 
— Reasons  for  not  entering  the  ministry — Struggles  with 
poverty — Recreation — First  book — Family  tutor — Work  on 
Cosmogony .......... 


34 


CHAPTER  III. 


teacher  in  the  university. 

Habilitation — Privat-Docent — Subjects  and  character  of  his  lec- 
tures— Aim  in  teaching — Popularity — Testimony  of  Herder — 
Distraction — First  salary — Contest  for  a  prize — Promotion 
to  a  professorship — Efforts  to  induce  him  to  leave  Konigsberg 
— Condition  of  the  University — Dean  and  Rector 


64 


Xll 


CONTENTS. 


CONTENTS. 


XIU 


CHAPTER  IV. 


PHYSICAL    BASIS. 


PAGE 


Appearance — Head — Peculiar  experience  with  his  eyes — State 
of  health — Study  of  his  physical  condition — View  of  medi- 
cine— Dietetics — Mastery  of  mind  over  hody — Art  of  pro- 
longing life 93 


CHAPTER  V. 

MENTAL    CnARACTERISTICS. 

Intellectuality— -Memory— Judgment— Opposition  to  dogma- 
tism, prejudice,  and  fanaticism — Power  of  analysis  and  syn- 
thesis— Sense  of  the  ludicrous — Wit — Abstraction— Origi- 
nality—Union  of  excellencies — Strange  psychological  fact 

Study  and  appreciation  of  other  systems— Political  views — 
Imagination — Emotional  nature— Transformation — Dogmatic 
spirit — Esthetic  culture — Views  of  music,  oratory,  poetry, 

and  genius — Reading — Library— Depreciation  of  history 

Polymathist 


106 


CHAPTER  VI. 


HOME    AND    SOCIAL    LIFE. 


The  philosopher's  home— Regularity— Carefulness  in  trifles — 
Lampe  —  Dress  —  Recreation  —  Table-talk— Social  power — 
Self-respect — Relatives — Views  of  women  and  marriage — 
Love-affairs.         .  I53 


CHAPTER  VII. 

KANT    AND    HIS    FRIENDS. 

Views  of  friendship — Excellence  of  heart — Countess  Kayser- 
ling — General  Meyer— Green — Motherby — Hamann — Von 
Hippel — Scheffner — Bowski — Jaronchman — Kraus       .         .   192 


FACE 


216 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

KANT's    AUTHORSHIP. 

Subjects  of  his  works — Pre-critical  period — Book  on  the 
Emotions  of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime — Prevalent  sys- 
tems of  philosophy — Leibnitz-Wolfian  system — Popular 
philosophy —  Sentimentality  —  Descartes  —  Locke — Newton 
Berkeley — Hume — First  metaphysical  dissertation — Lite- 
rary activity,  1756-63 — "  Dreams  of  Ghost-seers  explained  by 
Dreams  of  Metaphysics  " — Letter  to  Moses  Mendelssohn — 
Period  of  silence — Correspondence  with  Lambert — Inaugural 
Dissertation — Sensation  and  understanding — Time  and  space 

Letter  from  Mendelssohn—  Letter  to  Herz — Labour  on  the 

"  Kritik  " — Changes  in  the  plan  of  the  work 

CHAPTER  IX. 

AUTHORSHIP   CONTINUED. 

Publication  of  the  "  Kritik  " — Hamann's  impressions  of  the  book 
— Difficulties  of  the  work — Defects  and  excellencies — Aim — 
A  priori  and  a  posteriori  knowledge — Analytic  and  synthetic 
judgments — Transcendental  aesthetics — The  Categories — The 
reason — Charge  of  idealism — Das  Ding  an  sich — God,  the 
soul,  freedom,  immortality — Ontological,  cosmological,  and 
physico-theological  proofs  of  God's  existence — Result  of  the 
*'  Kritik  " — "  Prolegomena  " — "  Metaphysical  Principles  of 
Natural  Science  " — "  Critique  of  the  Judgment  " — "  Conflict 
of  the  Faculties  " — Last  manuscript      .....  266 

CHAPTER  X. 

MORAL    AND    RELIGIOUS    VIEWS    AND    CHARACTER. 

Importance  of  the  subject — Freedom — Conscience  a  sufficient 
guide — Duty — The  practical  reason — Its  primacy — The  good 
will  —  Emotionless  morality  —  Categorical  Imperative  — 
Maxims — Stoicism  —  Integrity  —  Truthfulness  —  Emotional 
nature — Basis  of  his  theology — Postulates — Religious  cha- 
racter of  the  age — Rationalism — Historical  faith — History 
depreciated — His  religion  essentially  morality — View  of 
Scripture — Moral  interpretation — Public  and  private  use  of 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


PAOC 


reason  —  The  Trinity  —  Christ  —  Sin  —  Conversion  —  The 
Church — Worship — The  next  world — Ministers—Influence 
of  his  rationah'sm — Explanation  of  his  theology— Called  to 
account  by  the  Government 310 


CHAPTER  XI. 

INFLUENCE    OF    KANT.       ADVOCATES    AND    OPPONENTS    OF    THE 

CRITICAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

Early  popularity  as  a  teacher — Spread  of  his  reputation — 
Neglect  of  the  "  Kritik  " — Its  sudden  popularity — Poems  on 
Kant  and  his  philosophy— Pilgrimages  to  Konigsberg— 
Enthusiasm  of  disciples— Influence  of  works  following  the 
"Kritik  "—Fanaticism  of  Kantians — Opposition  :  Hamann, 
Kraus,  Herder — Silence  amid  abuses — Influence  of  Kantism 
at  home  and  abroad— Honours — Subsidence  of  the  excite- 
ment— The  return  to  Kant 365 

CHAPTER  XII. 

CORRESPONDENCE  AND  CORRESPONDENTS. 

Small  number  of  Kant's  letters — Numerous  correspondents — 
Lambert— Moses  Mendelssohn — Herz— Erhard — Maria  von 
Herbert — J.  G.  Fichte — Kiese wetter— Jung  Stilling    .  .  398 


THE  LIFE  OF  IMMANUEL  KANT 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

OLD    AGE    AND    DEATH. 

Sad  life — Early  symptoms  of  old  age— Interference  with 
literary  projects — Close  of  his  lectures  and  literary  labours — 
Relation  to  the  academic  senate — Wasianski  assuming  control 
of  his  affairs— Loss  of  memory — Visitors — Undeviating 
uniformity — Change  of  servants — Method  of  retiring — 
Exercise — Approach  of  spring — Sleeplessness — Last  birth- 
day— Failing  sight— His  sister — Strange  notion  of  the  atmos- 
phere— First  sickness — Efforts  to  rob  him — Loss  of  conver- 
sational power — Longing  for  death — Extreme  feebleness — 
Death — Funeral — Mementoes — Will — Kant  Society  — Monu- 
ment     423 

Appendix 451 


THE  LIFE  OF  IMMANUEL  KMT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

rant's  boyhood  and  eably  sueeoundtngs. 

1724—1740. 

Konigsberg— Relatives— Home  influence— The  Pastor— Pietism-— 
The  Gymnasium— Its  Rector,  religious  influence,  and  intel- 
lectual advantages— His  speciality— Special  friends — Sensi- 
tiveness—General character  of  his  early  life. 

Immanuel  Kant  is  so  identified  with  Konigsberg  that 
a  sketch  of  this  city  is  essential  to  a  correct  know- 
ledge of  the  life  of  her  most  famous  son.  Here  he  was 
born  and  educated,  here  he  taught  and  died;  and 
this  city,  witih  its  immediate  vicinity,  was  the  scene  of 
all  his  labours,  hardships,  and  triumphs.  Its  social, 
religious,  and  intellectual  condition  exerted  a  potent 
influence  on  his  character  and  views ;  but  he,  on  the 
other  hand,  gave  the  city  a  fame  such  as  it  had  never  be- 
fore enjoyed,  and  has  for  ever  associated  its  name  with 
one  of  the  most  important  epochs  in  philosophy,  so 
that  for  his  sake  it  was  called  "  The  Capital  of  Philo- 
sophy," and  also  "The  City  of  Pure  Reason." 

Konigsberg   is  a   frontier  city   of  Germany,  being 
situated  in  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Prussia,  near 

B 


2  THE    lAVK    OF    LMMANUEL    KANT. 

the  Russian  border.     Formerly  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  Prussia ;  but  when  that  province  was 
divided  a  few  years  ago,  it  became  the  capital  of  East 
Prussia.     The  city  is  built  on  undulating  ground,  in 
an  attractive  region,  and  its  position  is  favourable  for 
commerce.     It  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pregel, 
a  river  which  forms  an  important  means  of  communi- 
cation with  the  interior  of  the  province  and  also  with 
Poland,  though  for  its  mercantile  importance  it  is  mainly 
indebted  to  its  location  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic.     Last 
century  its  extensive  commerce  brought  the  city  into 
communication    with    numerous  sea-ports   of  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  as  well  as  with  the  whole 
province  of  Prussia  and  the  adjoining  countries. (2) 

Tn  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  Kouigs- 
berg  was  prosperous  and  wealthy ;  but  during  the  Seven 
Years'  War  its  prosperity  was  checked  and  much  of 
its  wealth  was  lost.  In  1800  the  city,  consisting  of 
the  towns  of  Altstadt,  Lobenicht,  and  Kneiphof, 
was  about  nine  miles  in  circumference,  and  contained 
4000  houses.  Its  inhabitants  during  last  century 
numbered  from  40,000  to  50,000,  exclusive  of  the  mili- 
tary. 

As  might  be  expected  in  a  maritime  port,  there  was 
considerable  variety  in  the  character  of  the  population. 
The  city  had  been  wrested  from  the  Slavs  by  the 
Germans,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  traces  of 
Slavic  elements  were  still  found  among  the  inhabitants. 
Representatives  of  different  nations  were  brought  to 
the  city  by  commercial  interests;  such  as  Polish, 
Russian,  Scandinavian,  Dutch,  and  English  merchants 
and  seamen.  The  religious  differences  were  also  con- 
siderable.    The  Catholics  were  greatly  in  the  minority. 


KONIGSBERG. 


having  only  one  church ;  the  Protestants  were  princi- 
pally Lutherans,  who  were,  however,  divided  into  the 
Orthodox  and  Pietistic^  parties';  there  were  also  ad- 
herents of  the  Reformed  faith.  In  1729  the  city  had 
fourteen  Lutheran  and  three  Reformed  churches. 
Owing  to  the  nearness  of  Russia,  members  of  the 
Greek  Church  frequently  came  to  the  city.  The  active 
trade  also  attracted  many  Jews,  who  had  their  own 
social  and  rehgious  institutions. 

Besides  its  commercial  advantages,  Konigsberg  was 
the  religious,  political,  judicial,  military,  and  literary 
centre  of  the  province.  It  was  the  home  of  numerous 
civil  and  military  officers,  as  well  as  of  scholars  and 
prominent  ecclesiastics.  Besides  its  elementary  schools, 
it  contained  five  gymnasia  and  a  university.  In  the 
higher  classes  of  society  there  was  considerable 
culture  and  literary  inspiration ;  even  outside  of  the 
university  there  existed  a  good  degree  of  intellectual 
activity,  and  among  the  merchants  were  found  a  num- 
ber of  men  who  cultivated  a  taste  for  letters.  Ha- 
mann,  Hippel,  and  others,  acquired  a  reputation  by 
means  of  their  books,  and  many  of  the  officers  took 
an  interest  ^in  scholarship.  Isolated  as  the  city  was 
from  other  literary  centres,  it  had  in  itself  many  of 
those  elements  which  are  calculated  to  develop  a 
taste  for  learning.  Even  among  the  poorer  classes 
there  was  an  ambition  to  give  their  sons  a  learned 
education,  an  ambition  which  the  schools  helped  to 
realize  as  well  as  to  inspire ;  and  many  sons  of  mechanics 
took  a  university  course. 

His  surroundings,  as  we  shall  see,  had  an  important 
influence  on  Kant.  This  busy,  stirring  city  afforded 
variety  and  inspiration  enough  to  make  it  a  favourable 

B  2 


4  THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 

abode  for  a  scholar ;  and  yet  it  was  free  from  those 
distracting  influences  which  are  apt  to  interfere  seri- 
ously with  study.     Its  advantages  and  disadvantages 
must,  of  course,  be  judged  by  last  century,  not  by  our 
ao-e.     The  merchants  from    different   lands,    and   the 
seamen  with  large,  varied,  and  interesting  experience, 
gave  the  scholar  special  opportunities  to  study  men  and 
to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  world.     That  Kant  highly 
appreciated  the  advantages  offered  by  the  city,  is  evi- 
dent from  a  note  to  the  Preface  of  his  "Anthropology  :" 
"  A  large  city,  the  centre  of  a  government,  in  which 
the  officers  of  the  Government  are  found  ;  which  con- 
tains a  university  for  the  culture  of  the  sciences,  and 
is  also  so  situated  as  to  have  commerce  by  sea ;  which 
is  favoured  with  communication,  by  means  of  rivers, 
with  the  interior  of  the  country,  as  well  as  with  more 
distant  adjoining  lands  of  various  tongues  and  customs  ; 
such  a  city,  for  instance,  as  Kcinigsberg  on  the  Pregel, 
may  be  regarded  as  a  suitable  place  for  enlarging  one's 
knowledge  of  men  and  of  the  world,  a  place  where  this 
knowledge  may  be  gained  even  without  travel.'XO 

Immanuel  Kant  was  born  in  this  city,  on  the  22nd 
of  April,  1724,  in  a  house  in  Saddler  Street.  This 
house,  which  has  been  torn  down,  stood  near  the 
Green  Bridge,  which  was  the  centre  of  a  lively  trade 
during  the  summer,  where  especially  the  Germans, 
Dutch,  English,  Poles,  and  Jews,  carried  on  an  extensive 
traffic.  The  boy  was  thus  early  brought  into  contact 
with  representatives  of  these  nationaUties,  and  he  had 
an  opportunity  for  observing  the  peculiar  manners 
and  customs  of  different  nations ;  afterwards  the  study 
of  national  characteristics  and  of  different  countries 
became  his  chief  literary  recreation  and  delight. 


HIS    FATHER. 


In  the  almanac  for  Eastern  Prussia,  the  22nd  of 
April  is  designated  '*  Emanuel : "  this  circumstance 
determined  his  Christian  name  at  his  baptism,  which 
took  place  the  day  after  his  birth.  The  very  meaning 
of  the  word  commended  it  to  his  pious  parents ;  and 
Kant  also  became  attached  to  the  name. 

In  his  relatives,  so  far  as  they  are  known  to  us,  we 
find  no  evidence  of  extraordinary  intellectual  endow- 
ments. His  parents  were  plain  people,  belonging  to 
the  class  of  mechanics,  and  there  was  little  to  distin- 
guish them  from  others  of  the  same  grade  in  society, 
except  perhaps  their  eminent  morality  and  piety.  But 
while  there  is  no  trace  of  family  genius,  we  have  in 
Kant  a  union  of  the  blood  of  the  two  nations  which  are 
most  distinguished  for  their  metaphysical  speculations, 
namely  the  Scotch  and  the  German. 

His  father,  John  George  Cant  (*),  born  near  Memel, 
in  Prussia,  was  the  son  of  Scotch  parents  who  had 
emigrated  thither  from  Scotland.  Kant  himself  states 
that  for  some  unknown  reason  quite  a  number  of  Scotch 
families  emigrated  to  Sweden  and  Germany,  at  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  that  his  paternal  grandparents  were 
among  these  emigrants.  Of  these  ancestors,  and  of 
Kant's  other  paternal  relations,  nothing  is  known. 
Even  of  John  George  Cant  scarcely  anything  is  re- 
corded ;  his  celebrated  son,  with  his  characteristic 
reticence  respecting  his  early  life,  rarely  referred  to 
him.  Kant's  father  was  a  saddler  in  humble  circum- 
stances, whose  strict  morality  seems  to  have  been  the 
most  striking  trait  of  his  character.  He  was  industrious 
and  conscientious,  and  was  specially  intent  on  training 
his  children  to  habits  of  industry  and  to  the  formation 


) 


M'     i 


1  THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 

abode  for  a  scholar ;  and  yet  it  was  free  from  those 
distracting  influences  which  are  apt  to  interfere  sen- 
ouslv  with  study.     Its  advantages  and  disadvantages 
must,  of  course,  be  judged  by  last  century  not  by  our 
acre      The  merchants  from   different   lands,   and  the 
seamen  with  large,  varied,  and  interesting  experience, 
eave  the  scholar  special  opportunities  to  study  men  and 
to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  world.     That  Kant  highly 
appreciated  the  advantages  offered  by  the  city,  is  evi- 
dent  from  a  note  to  the  Preface  of  his  "Anthropology  : 
"  A  large  city,  the  centre  of  a  government,  m  which 
the  officers  of  the  Government  are  found  ;  which  con- 
tains  a  university  for  the  culture  of  the  sciences,  and 
is  also  so  situated  as  to  have  commerce  by  sea ;  which 
is  favoured  with  communication,  by  means  of  rivers, 
with  the  interior  of  the  country,  as  well  as  with  more 
distant  adjoining  lands  of  various  tongues  and  customs  ; 
such  a  city,  for  instance,  as  Kiinigsberg  on  the  Pregel, 
maybe  regarded  as  a  suitable  place  for  enlargmg  one's 
knowledge  of  men  and  of  the  world,  a  place  where  this 
knowledge  may  be  gained  even  without  travel.'^') 

Immanuel  Kant  was  born  in  this  city,  on  the  22nd 
of  April,   1724,  in  a  house  in  Saddler  Street.     This 
house,   which   has   been  torn   down,   stood  near  the 
Green  Bridge,  which  was  the  centre  of  a  Hvely  trade 
during   the    summer,  where  especially  the   Germans, 
Dutch,  English,  Poles,  and  Jews,  carried  on  an  extensive 
traffic'     The  boy  was  thus  early  brought  into  contact 
with  representatives  of  these  nationahties,  and  he  had 
an    opportunity   for   observing  the  pecuhar  manners 
and  customs  of  different  nations  ;  afterwards  the  study 
of  national  characteristics  and  of  different  countries 
became  his  chief  literary  recreation  and  delight. 


HIS    FATHER.  6 

In  the  almanac  for  Eastern  Prussia,  the  22nd  of 
April  is  designated  ''  Emanuel : "  this  circumstance 
determined  his  Christian  name  at  his  baptism,  which 
took  place  the  day  after  his  birth.  The  very  meaning 
of  the  word  commended  it  to  his  pious  parents ;  and 
Kanfc  also  became  attached  to  the  name. 

In  his  relatives,  so  far  as  they  are  known  to  us,  we 
find  no  evidence  of  extraordinary  intellectual  endow- 
ments. His  parents  were  plain  people,  belonging  to 
the  class  of  mechanics,  and  there  was  little  to  distin- 
guish them  from  others  of  the  same  grade  in  society, 
except  perhaps  their  eminent  morality  and  piety.  But 
while  there  is  no  trace  of  family  genius,  we  have  in 
Kant  a  union  of  the  blood  of  the  two  nations  which  are 
most  distinguished  for  their  metaphysical  speculations, 
namely  the  Scotch  and  the  German. 

His  father,  John  George  Cant  (*),  born  near  Memel, 
in  Prussia,  was  the  son  of  Scotch  parents  who  had 
emigrated  thither  from  Scotland.  Kant  himself  states 
that  for  some  unknown  reason  quite  a  number  of  Scotch 
famiUes  emigrated  to  Sweden  and  Germany,  at  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  that  his  paternal  grandparents  were 
among  these  emigrants.  Of  these  ancestors,  and  of 
Kant's  other  paternal  relations,  nothing  is  known. 
Even  of  John  George  Cant  scarcely  anything  is  re- 
corded; his  celebrated  son,  with  his  characteristic 
reticence  respecting  his  early  life,  rarely  referred  to 
him.  Kant's  father  was  a  saddler  in  humble  circum- 
stances, whose  strict  morality  seems  to  have  been  the 
most  striking  trait  of  his  character.  He  was  industrious 
and  conscientious,  and  was  specially  intent  on  training 
his  children  to  habits  of  industry  and  to  the  formation 


iil> 


m 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


1 


6 

of  an  upright  character;  and  as  he  regarded  truthful 
ness  as' the  most  essential  of  the  v-tues  he  took 
particular  pains  to  inculcate  a  love  for  the  truth^ 
Lmanuel  esteemed  his  character  highly,  ^nd  «"  *e 
occasion  of  his  death,  in  1746  he  wrote  ^- the  farmV 
Bible-  "On  the  24th  of  March,  my  dear  father  was 
f^n  away  by  a  happy  de.th.  May  ^o^' -ho  did  ^o 
grant  him  many  joys  in  this  life,  permit  him  to  share 

%rlS;r  of  Immanuel's  mother  was  more 
pontile  than  that  of  the  father  ;  and  t^h  she^^d 
when  her  son  was  only  fourteen  years  old.  and  eight 
^ears  earlier  than  his  father,   she  J--^^ ^^''^en^ 
deepest  and  most  lasting  impression.     Her  parens 
were   German,    and   her   maiden    name   was   Regma 
Dorothet  Renter.     She  was   an  affectionate  mother 
Tud  a  devoted  Christian,  and  together  with  her  husband 
belonged  to  the  Pietistic  party  in  the  Lutheran  Church 
Inhef  character  the  religious  element  was  P-^ominant 
whUeher  husband  laid  the  emphasis  on  morality.  Onthe 
Tv  of  her  marriage.  November  13th,  1715  she  wrot« 
£  following  in  the  family  Bible  :  "  May  the  Lord  our 
God  be  pleased  to  keep  us  in  constant  love  and  unity 
and  gte  to  us  the  dew  of  heaven  and  the  sweetness  of 
tbe  farth.  till  He  brings  -^^  the  marriage  ^f  the 
Lamb ;  for  the  sake  of  Jesus  Christ  His  Son.     Amen^ 
She  was  greatly  influenced  by  her  pastor   Dr.  1 .  A. 
Schuk  w£  in  the  pulpit  and  in  his  pastoral  visitations 
!xho  Sd  his  people  to  have  stated  times  for  prayer 
:S"other  reli'gioL  exercises,  to  strive  ea^es^^^^^^^ 
a  change  of  heart,  and  to  learn  deRnitely  the  time  ot 
tto   change.     She   was   faithful   in   following    ^^^^ 
directions,  and  strict  in  attending  to  religious  devotions 


HIS    MOTHER.  .  7 

at  home  and  in  church.  In  the  training  of  her  children 
she  was  most  anxious  about  their  spiritual  welfare, 
and  it  was  largely  to  her  influence  that  Immanuel  was 
indebted  for  his  high  ideal  of  holiness  and  the  develop- 
ment of  his  character. 

In  harmony  with  the  prevalent  low  views  of  woman's 
intellectual  capacities  and  calling,  the  facilities  for 
female  education  were  very  meagre.  When  broad 
intellectual  culture  was  regarded  as  unnecessary  or 
even  inappropriate  for  women  who  belonged  to  the 
higher  classes  of  society,  it  is  not  surprising  that  a  few 
rudiments  of  knowledge  were  thought  sufficient  for 
the  daughters  of  mechanics  and  labourers.  We  must, 
therefore,  not  expect  to  find  Kant's  mother  a  woman 
of  superior  education;  but  she  had  more  than  the 
ordinary  intelligence  of  the  women  of  her  own  rank. 
Kant,  who  said  that  he  was  the  picture  of  his  mother, 
regarded  her  as  a  woman  of  good  natural  powers,  of 
noble  heart,  and  o-f  devout  piety.  In  his  old  age  he 
still  spoke  of  her  with  reverence  and  even  with 
tenderness,  saying,  "  My  mother  was  a  lovely, 
affectionate,  pious,  and  upright  woman,  and  a  tender 
mother,  who  led  her  children  to  the  fear  of  God  by 
means  of  pious  instruction  and  a  virtuous  example. 
Often  she  took  me  outside  of  the  city,  directed  my 
attention  to  the  works  of  Grod,  spoke  with  pious  rap- 
ture of  His  omnipotence,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  and 
impressed  on  my  heart  a  deep  reverence  for  the  Creator 
of  all  things.  Never  shall  I  forget  my  mother,  for  she 
planted  and  nourished  in  me  the  first  good  seed,  and 
opened  my  heart  to  the  impressions  of  nature;  she 
aroused  and  enlarged  my  thoughts  ;  and  her  instruc- 
tion has  had  an  abiding  and  blessed  influence  on  my 


I  • 


8 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANBEL   KANT. 


||i 


:? 


life  ''     She  died  December  18th,  1737,  her  death  being 
an  offering  on  the  altar  of  affection.     A  friend,  whom 
she  tenderly  loved,  had  been  engaged  to  a  man  who 
forsook  her  and  married  another.     This  faithlessness 
so  deeply  affected  the  friend,  that  she  was  attacked  by 
a  fatal  fever,  during  which  she  refused  all  remedies. 
Kant^s  mother,  who  attended  her  during  her  illness, 
urged  her  to  take  some  medicine ;  but  she  declined  it, 
under  the  pretext  that  the  taste  was  too  disagreeable. 
In  order  to  convince  her  that  this  was  not  the  case,  his 
mother  tasted  it,  using  for  that  purpose  a  spoon  which 
had  already  been  in  the   mouth   of  the   patient,     A 
feeling  of   disgust   came   over   her  immediately,   she 
became  greatly  excited,  and  the  effect  on  her  imagi- 
nation was  increased  when  she  discovered  spots  on  the 
body  of  her  friend  which  indicated  that  the  disease 
was  spotted  fever.     She  became  sick  on  the  same  day, 

and  soon  died. 

The  peace,  morality,  and  piety  of  his  home  exerted  a 
marked  and  lasting  influence  on  Kant,  and  to  his  early 
training  he  himself  ascribed  his  moral  strictness  and  his 
power  to  resist  evil  inclinations.     The  circumstances  in 
which  he  was  placed  were  calculated  to  develop  strength 
of    character    and    self-reliance.     Without    being   m 
absolute  need,  he  was  obhged  to  practise  self-denial ; 
and  without  insuperable  obstacles  in  the  way  of  an 
education,  he  early  encountered  and  mastered  difficul- 
ties.    The  very  hardships  of  his  youth  served  to  unfold 
his  powers,  and  led  him  to  prize  the  more  highly  the 
learning  which  cost  him  so  much  effort.     His  home 
was  admirably  adapted  to  the  development  of  those 
qualities  which  Kant  learned  to  appreciate  above  all 
others,  and  which  are  really  the  best ;  and  he  appre- 


BELIGIOUS    CHAEACTEB   OF   HIS  HOME.  9 

ciated  its  excellence  and  recognized  its  beneficial  effect 
on  his  character.  Though  he  inherited  from  his 
parents  no  money,  he  received  from  them  treasures 
inestimably  more  valuable.  His  father  died  poor,  but 
without  debts.  Only  a  few  years  before  his  own 
death,  Kant  described  his  parents  as  models  of  moral 
propriety.  "  They  gave  me,"  he  said,  ''a  training  which, 
in  a  moral  point  of  view,  could  not  have  been  better, 
and  for  which,  at  every  remembrance  of  them,  I  am 
moved  with  the  most  grateful  emotions."  In  compar- 
ing his  humble  home  with  others  of  wealth  and  of  rank, 
he  spoke  of  its  superior  excellence.  ''  Kant  said  that 
when  he  contemplated  his  work  as  a  tutor  in  the  house 
of  a  count  not  far  from  Konigsberg  ...  he  had  often 
thought,  with  deep  emotion,  of  the  incomparably  more 
excellent  training  which  he  had  received  in  his  home, 
where,  as  he  gratefully  boasted,  he  had  never  seen  or 
heard  anything  that  was  immoral."(^) 

While  in  many  instances  Pietism  had  degenerated, 
we  have  reason  to  believe  that  this  was  not  the  case 
with  the  religion  of  Kant's  parents.  From  all  we  can 
learn  of  them,  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that  they 
were  free  from  bigotry,  hypocrisy,  and  fanaticism. 
That  their  religion  was  sincere  and  earnest,  and  that 
it  moulded  their  characters  and  lives,  is  evident  from 
the  testimony  of  their  son.  Speaking  of  his  parents, 
he  said,  "  Even  if  the  religious  views  of  that  day,  and 
the  notions  of  what  was  called  virtue  and  piety,  were 
not  clear  and  satisfactory,  nevertheless  the  thing  itself 
was  found.  Let  men  say  what  they  will  of  Pietism, 
those  who  sincerely  adopted  it  were  honourably  distin- 
guished. They  had  the  highest  which  a  man  can 
possess — that  rest,  that  cheerfulness,  and  that  inner 


h 


( 


ill 


10 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


HIS    BROTHER. 


11 


peace,  which  no  passion  could  disturb.     No  need  and 
no  persecution  disheartened  them  ;  no  contention  could 
excite  them  to  anger  and  enmity.     In  a  word,  even  the 
mere  observer  was  involuntarily  inspired  with  respect. 
I  still  remember  how  a  quarrel  about  their  rights  broke 
out  between  the  guilds  of  the  harness-makers  and  of 
the    saddlers,  from   which  my   father  suffered  consi- 
derably ;  but  in  spite  of  this,  even  in  the  conversation 
in  the  family  this  quarrel  was  mentioned  with  such 
forbearance  and  love  toward  the  opponents,  and  with 
such  firm  confidence  in  Providence,  that  the  thought 
of  it,  though  I  was  only  a  boy  then,  will  never  leave 
me  "  C)    This  testimony  is  the  more  significant,  because 
Kant  had  no  sympathy  with  Pietism  when  it  was  given. 
The  influence  of  this   home  must  indeed   have  been 
exceptional,  since   Kant,   the  strict  and   even  severe 
moralist,  frequently  said,  "  Never,  not  even  a  smgle 
time  was  I  permitted  to  hear  anything  improper  from 
my  parents ;  never  did  I  see  in  them  anything  that  was 

wrong." 

There  were  ten  children  besides  Immanuel,  three  sons 

and  seven  daughters  ;  six  of  these,  two  sons  older  than 

Immanuel,  and  four  daughters,  died  quite  young.     He 

was  the  fourth  child.     His  only  brother  who  attained 

years    of  maturity,  John    Henry,    was    eleven   years 

younger,   and  chose   the   ministry   as  his  profession, 

studying  theology  in  the   University   of  Konigsberg. 

After  spending  some  time  as  family  tutor  in  Courland, 

he  became  the  rector  of  a  school  in  Mittau  ;  and  from 

1780  until  his  death  in  1800  he  was  the  pastor  of  a 

church   in   Rahden,  Courland.     He   had   an   origmal 

mind  and  was  well  informed  ;  his  attainments  in  history, 

of  which  he  made  a  speciality,  were  superior,  and  he 


also  had  a  good  knowledge  of  mathematics,  was  a  critical 
student  of  the  classics,  read  extensively,  and  was  an 
admirer  of  practical  philosophy,  but  not  of  metaphysics. 
It  is  said  that  in  his  youth  he  received  instruction  from 
his  brother,  which  probably  means  that  he  attended 
some  of  his  lectures  while  at  the  university.  He  read 
his  writings  until  his  book  on  "  Religion  within  the 
Limits  of  Reason  "  appeared,  then  refused  to  read  any 
more  of  them,  because,  he  said,  his  old  head  could  not 
adapt  itself  to  a  new  terminology.  The  early  home- 
training  left  a  moral  impression  on  him  similar  to  that 
made  on  his  celebrated  brother,  and  he  was  upright 
and  candid,  and  had  the  strictest  regard  for  the  truth. 
He  published  nothing,  his  sphere  being  practical  life 
rather  than  speculation  or  literature ;  but  till  the  close 
of  his  life  he  was  a  student  of  learned  works.  While 
conscientious  and  energetic  in  the  discharge  of  his 
duties,  he  also  had  admirable  qualities  of  heart.  His 
studies,  his  religious  views,  his  pursuits,  and,  in  fact, 
his  whole  life,  were  so  different  from  those  of  his 
brother  that  there  was  little  congeniality  between  them. 
They  rarely  corresponded  with  each  other,  and  for  many 
years  not  at  all.  Immanuel  seems  to  have  cherished 
no  fraternal  affection  for  his  only  brother,  who  was 
also  the  only  relative  who  could  lay  any  claim  to 
scholarship  ;  though  after  his  brother's  death  he  gene- 
rously aided  the  family,  which  had  been  left  in  poverty. 
Of  the  three  sisters  who  survived  the  age  of  child- 
hood, one  was  older  than  Immanuel  and  died  unmarried; 
the  other  two  were  married  to  humble  citizens  of 
Konigsberg.  They  had  enjoyed  only  the  extremely 
meagre  educational  advantages  of  girls  in  their 
circumstances,  had  no  opportunities  for  refinement  and 


V 


!iil 


12 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


THE   PASTOR. 


13 


III 


culture,  and  never  rose  above  their  lowly  station  mlife. 
Only  one  of  them,  Mrs.  Theuer,  survived  her  brother. 
The  early  intellectual  advantages  of  Kant  were  by  no 
means  equal  to  the  superior   moral  ones.     It  is  not 
easy  to  transfer  ourselves  from  the  enlightened  Germany 
of  to-day,  with  its  masterly  educational  system,  to  the 
Germany  of  the  first  decades  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  letters  and  biographies  of  that  period  must  be 
read,  in  order  to  form  a  conception  of  the  people  who 
were'  still  painfully  struggling  to  rise  above  the  ruins  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War ;  a  people  that  had  just  passed 
through  the  saddest  century  of  their  history,  a  century 
of  wretchedness   and    despair;    a   people    depressed, 
depreciating   themselves    in  comparison    with    other 
nations,  with  neither  political  unity  nor  independence, 
with  no  national  literature,  and  without  the  conscious- 
ness   of    intellectual   strength.     While    various    de- 
partments  of  learning  flourished  in  England,  France, 
and  the  Netherlands,  Germany  had  little  or  no  mtel- 
lectual  influence  among  the  nations,  a  fact  which  will 
become  more   evident  when   we  follow   Kant   to  the 
gymnasium  and  the  university,  but  which  also  must 
be  taken  into  account  in   connexion  with   his   entire 
education.     The    day    when    Pestalozzi    and    others 
radically  reformed  the  educational  system  of  Germany 
had  not  yet  come.     In  the  primary  schools,  both  in 
the  city  and  in  the  country,  the  instruction  was  very 
defective.     Girls  were  taught  to  read,  and  perhaps  to 
cipher,  and  they  also  received  religious  instruction,  but 
rarely 'anything  more.     There  were  no  schools  for  the 
higher  education  of  girls  ;  hence,  unless  parents  could 
afford  a  private  tutor,  their  education  was  confined  to 
these  elements ;  and  the  boys,  unless  they  were  to  be 


prepared  for  the  gymnasium,  generally  fared  little 
better.  The  teachers  were  frequently  incompetent, 
many  of  them  being  mechanics  who  taught  in  connexion 
with  their  trade,  in  order  to  eke  out  a  living. 

Kant  at  first  attended  what  was  called  the  Hospital 
School.     The  pastor  of  the  family.  Dr.   Schulz,  who 
was  the  first  to  notice  the  abilities  of  the  boy,  called 
the  attention  of  his  parents  to  his  talents,  and  urged 
them  to  promote  their  development.     His  connexion 
with  one  of  the  gymnasia  as  rector,  and  with  the  uni- 
versity  as   professor,   made  the   way  for   the  higher 
education  of  Kant  more  easy ;  and  the  fact  that  both 
the  gymnasium  and  the  university  were  in  Konigsberg 
made  it  possible  to  give  him  the  advantages  of  these 
institutions  with  comparatively  little  expense.     If  it 
had  not  been  for  this  faithful  pastor,  there  seems  to  have 
been   little   probability  that  his   parents  would  have 
thought  of  sending  him  to  the  gymnasium.     Jachmann, 
one  of  the  biographers  of  the  Konigsberg  philosopher, 
says  of  this  pastor,    "  Kant  is  indebted  to  him  for 
what  he  became,  and  the  learned  world  is  under  obli- 
gation  to   him   for  what   it   gained   through   Kant's 
culture."     But  in  spite  of   the   hmited  expense,   his 
parents  could  not  afford  to  give  him  a  liberal  education ; 
their  pastor,  however,  gave  substantial  help  by  sending 
them  fire- wood  free  of  charge.     Whether  the  powerful 
influence  of  Schulz  secured  stipends,  or  other  pecuniary 
aid,  is  not  known.     Being  a  devout  Pietist,  the  minister 
was  desirous  that  Kant  should  study  theology,  and 
this  met  the  wishes  of  his  parents,  especially  of  his 
mother.     When  eight  years  old,  he  was  accordingly 
sent  to  the  Collegium  Fridericianum,  the  gymnasium 
of  which  the  pastor  was  rector. 


,'Vl 


j4  THE   LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

Kant  gratefully   recognized  the   -™s   rendered 
him  by  this  excellent  man,  and  Borowski    his  inen^ 
Z  biographer,  says,  "  In  Kant's  estimation  Dr.  F 
A   Schufz  was  one  of  the  first  and  most  excellent  of 

the  memory  of  Us  friend  and  benetator.     He jas 

also  indebted  to  a  n'=''«™'  ""^vtrMm  wbtte  a 
shoemaker  of  some  means,  who  assisted  him  while 

Qt.ndpnt  and  afterwards.  . 

Sher  of  the  parents  lived  to  witness  the  begin- 
ning of  heir  son's  fame;  the  mother.  howeveM.ved 
To  ,«,  him  in  the  gymnasium,  preparing  for  the  uni- 
ts^y  l"d  the  father  saw  him  oomplete  Ms  eourse  in 
Ihe  Silversity,  but  died  a  year  before  his  first  book 

"7* "tie  Kanfs  youth  with  the  hope  of  flnding 

i.^..r  nf  his  future  greatness,  we  shall  be 
some  prophecy  o^  "^  ^J       ,   ,,  the  fact  that 
disappointed,     ihis  may  oe  u      i>       j 
we  know  so  little  about  that  period  of  his  life ,  but 
There  seems  to  have  been  nothing  extraordmary  m  it, 
Isothl^se  it  would  probably  have  been  recorded 
Durtg  the  first  years    at  school  he  manifested  no 
pXLe  for  the' subject  in  which  he  achieved  h.s 
^eat  fame ;  and  even  during  his   «  -dies  at  the  uni 
versitv  he  did  not  make  it  a  speciality.     Impelled  by  a 
IhL  t'f or  knowledge,  he  was  a  diligent  student,  and  m 
!om:  branches  his  attainments  were  -^ore  i^.njr^- 
\.^    l^owpver    eave  no    evidences    ot    striding 
3;nc;'oftX",  fnd  even  his  most  intimate  fnends 


ORIGIN   OF   PIETISM. 


15 


discovered  in  him  no  indications  of  the  profound 
metaphysician  or  of  any  extraordinary  philosophical 
genius.  While  but  little  is  known  about  him  personally 
during  this  period,  we,  fortunately,  have  the  data  for  a 
knowledge  of  the  two  most  important  factors  in  his  early 
life,  namely,  the  religious  and  intellectual  influences  to 
which  he  was  subject. 

The  gymnasium  which  Kant  attended  was,  like  his 
home,  subject  to  Pietistic  influence ;  and  to  a  large 
extent  this  is  also  true  of  the  university.  At  home, 
therefore,  in  church,  in  the  gymnasium,  and  in  the 
university,  he  was  in  this  religious  atmosphere ;  and 
for  the  sake  of  understanding  his  youth,  and  also  his 
character  and  life,  it  is  important  to  examine  this 
powerful  religious  tendency.  When  we  consider  what 
his  pastor  and  the  Pietistic  schools  did  for  Kant,  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  the  world  is  indebted  to 
Pietism  for  saving  from  obscurity  the  greatest  of 
modern  metaphysicians. 

The  great  religious  movement  begun  by  Spener  in 
the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  called 
Pietism  by  its  opponents,  was  a  powerful  revival  of 
religion,  to  which  in  many  respects  the  later  Metho- 
dist movement  in  England  was  similar.  Its  influence 
was  by  no  means  coufined  to  the  Lutheran  Church,  in 
which  it  originated,  but  extended  to  all  the  churches. 
Unlike  Methodism,  it  did  not  organize  a  new  denomi- 
nation, but  aimed  at  the  spiritualization  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  Spener  has  been  called  a  second  Luther; 
and  the  great  work  begun  by  him  was  in  many 
respects  a  real  reformation.  Instead  of  the  cold  and 
formal  orthodoxy  generally  prevalent,  he  wanted  to 
introduce  more  spiritual  life  into  the  churches  and  a 


\ 


^^ 


X. 


!! 


]\ 


^6  THE  LIFE   OF   IMMANUEr.  KANT.  ' 

,  r,i  •  4.-„,,u,r  Wbile  not  aiming  to  set 
xnore  practical  Ct"«^i^^f  ^^  ^^  did  not  want  mere 
aside  the  orthodox  doctnn  s,  he  d^d  ^^  ^^^^^._ 

intellectual  assent  to  them  to  be  ^^S^  ^^^  ^^c 

tuting  a  Christian ;  but  he  ^^-f  f  f  ^^  ^,,,  as  the 
trines,  and  to  apply  them  ^«J^«^^^^^^^^^^  should 

head,  so  that  they  -f  ^  ^^^^^^^^f^p^^^^^  -^^in 
attest  itself  in  daily  hfe,  as  weH  as  npro  ^^  ^^^^ 
acts  distinctively  rehgious      But  mg       g      .^     ^^^ 

e„.phasis  to  the  f^^^^^' ^^X^,,.r.  in  religion 
self-sufficiency  of  a  sterile  inte  ^^^^^.^^^ 

and  of  a  dead  o^tbodo^^  J^  .^^^^^^^  ,,d 

themselves  received  a  r^^we^J^  P^^^^^^^  y, 

value.      By  means  of  'T^T"^^^^^^^  ,^  almost  un- 

efioxts  to  TtJ'lXence  troughout  Germany, 
paralleled  spiritual  ^^^^^^r  the  Thirty  Years' War, 
Among  the  few  signs  of  hfe  ^^  t«™^;;  J  ,  j^s  direct 
HetisS  was  t^e  -^^^^^^^^^  TdTpartments  of 

aim  was  only  ^fS^"""^'^  ^   government,  aroused 

?'.  f  Tit gif  otrm^^^^^^  gave  the  people 
the  latent  energies  oi  .,-^^  in  many  places, 
inspiration,  hope,  ^^"^  ^enthusiasm,     in  y  F    ^.^ 

3plng  with  its  warm  W  b,  and  t^mi  „^  ^^^^^^.^^ 

^^^^^^^'rttnittldtn  the  energies  in  religious 
passion,  It  concent  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  Government 

"""  7oS  b^t  P  tism  was  essentially  a  popular 
were  ^^^f  ^^  .^^^Lected  classes,  the  masses,  were 
movement,  and  the  negiecLe  Qatecbization. 

the  recipients  of  its  f^^*^^^^^^^^^^^^  introduced, 

which  bad  been  neglected  was  ge  ^^  .^^^^^.tual 
and  was  made  a  ^P^al  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^,,  ^tudy  were 
exercise;  meetmgs  /^^  P^  V^ation.  with  religious 

t:;^r:iro::^o:c:mecomm. 


NEW   EELIGIOUS   LIFE. 


17 


ing,  which  had  been  coldly  intellectual,  was  quickened  ; 
theological  instruction,  which  had  become  scholastic, 
dry,  and  polemical,  was  made  more  spiritual  and  more 
ethical ;  and  the  whole  aspect  of  the  spiritual  life  was 
changed.  The  movement  aroused  the  missionary  ac- 
tivity  of  the  Church,  established  benevolent  institutions, 
and  culminated  in  founding  the  University  of  Halle,' 
and  Francke's  Orphan  Asylum  in  the  same  city.  In 
Prussia,  Pietism  became  a  great  power,  and  this  uni- 
versity was  especially  favoured  by  the  Government ; 
and  Francke's  Asylum,  and  the  various  institutions 
connected  with  it,  became  the  model  for  other  Pie- 
tistic  establishments. 

It  IS  evident  that  a  movement  so  vigorous,  and  so 
radical  in  the  changes  it  effected,  could  not  escape 
opposition.     The   Orthodox  party    denounced    it  and 
persecuted   its  leaders.     A    bitter    controversy  arose 
between    the  two  parties,   in  which  impure  motives, 
personal   attacks,  and  abusive  epithets,  bore    a  pro- 
minent part,   produced   distraction  and   religious    in- 
difference, and  promoted  scepticism.     Even  the  most 
ardent  advocate  of  Pietism  cannot   deny  that  in  the 
course  of  time  it  laid  itself  open  to  serious  charges. 
It  lost  much  of  its  original  freshness,  simplicity,  and 
power,  and  became  formal  and  artificial ;  and  before 
the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  had  closed,  the 
period  of  its  degeneracy  had  come.     Its  piety  became 
constrained  and  affected,  and  was  a  matter  of  rules 
rather  than  of  spontaneous  spiritual  life.     It  developed 
a  painfully  anxious   spirit,  and  encouraged  an  intro- 
spection which  frequently  led  to  gloomy  brooding  over 
the  state  of  the  heart;  those  who   were   obliged  to 
submit  to  its  regulations,  and  to  listen  to  its  frequent 

c 


/\ 


R- 


ll: 


^g  THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 

eAortatiou,,  were  apt  to  find  ii:uch  in  *«""  «■?'  "^^ 
isom,  and  insipid :   and  it  is  not  strange  that  m 

irttwi^ot  the  emotions,  -  ^^^^^P^  j^! 
Pfforts    to    bring   about  conversion,  sometimes   pro 
due  d  effects  wLli  were  very  different  from  tbose 
tended      Add  to  this  the  fact  that  many  Pietists  m 
t!    extreme  opposition  to  amusements,  gave  to  hfe 
1   lomy  and  unnatural  aspect;  that  learning   was 
LqueiS  spoken  of  disparagingly,  all  the  emphasis 
bdngt  /on^the  heart  and  its  experiences  ;  that  asup- 
Zel  superiority  to  others  often  engendered  a  spiritual 
posed  ^^P^""   /  •      ^as  apt  to  assume  the  garb 

pride  ;  and  that  hypocrisy  was,  ap 

which  seemed  to  be  most  devout-and  it  ^^U^eadi^ 
be  understood  that  the  degenerated  Pietism,  for  only 
that  is  meant,  had  a  deleterious  influence.  especiaHy 
on  the  minds  of  the  young  and  the  scholarly  I  be- 
"xne  too  narrow,  too  little  human,  and  too  unhealthy, 
to  satisfy  deep  and  scientific  natures.  From  a  per- 
secuted party  it    grew    in    many    places   to   be^the 

dominant  one,  and  it  also  be^^^^.^P^^t      "        ^a^ 
through  its   instigations   the   philosopher  Wolf   was 
obliged  to  leave  Halle,  and  when  it  sought  to  force 
others  to  refrain  from  teaching  what  it  -garded  as 
irreligious.  Pietism  created  the  suspicion  that  it  was 
hostile  to  freedom  in  scientific  investigation,  a  sus- 
picion which  is  specially  potent  m   it^  influence  on 
Tudents.     There  were  indeed  many  Pietists  during 
the  period  of  its  degeneracy  who  were  free  from  the 
faults  mentioned  ;  but  their  example  did  not  counter- 
act the  evil  influences  of  an  unhealthy  Pietism. 

The  religious  influences  to  which  the  sensitive,  im- 


THE   FEIDBRICIANgM.  IQ 

pressible  mind  of  Kant  was  subject  at  home  and  in 
the  gymnasium   were  such  as  were  exerted  by   the 
better  class  of  the  Pietists  of  that  day ;  but  that  these 
influences  were  not  wholly  beneficial  is  evident  from 
the  testimony  of   numerous  reliable  witnesses.     Ex- 
cesses  occurred  which  bore  evil  fruit,  and  there  were 
methods  which,  in  spite  of  the  purity  of  the  motives 
which  prompted  them,  frustrated  their  intended  aim. 
Ihe  Fridencianum  was  founded  bv  a  dealer  in  wood 
named  Gehr,  who   was  a    Pietist,  and  was   desirous 
of  having  his   children  educated   in    his  own  faith, 
for  this  purpose   he   procured  from   the   celebrated 
Orphan  Asylum  in  Halle,  in  1698.  Dr.  Lysius.  a  su- 
perior instructor,   who   modelled   the   institution   he 
founded  in  Konigsberg  after  the  one  in  Halle,  both 
religiously  and  intellectually.     At  first  the  school  was 
only  a  private  one.  intended  for  the  children  of  the 
founder,  and  the  teacher  was  a  family  tutor ;  but  his 
extraordinary  success   led  other  parents  to  ask  per- 
mission to  send  their  children  to  him.     Besides  grant- 
ing this  request,  Gehr  also  gave  free  instruction  to 
some  poor  children.     The  popularity  of  the  institu- 
tion  soon  aroused  the  opposition  of  the  educational 
authorities  m  Konigsberg;  and  in  order  to  quiet  the 
unfavourable   rumours  respecting    the    school     Gehr 
requested  a  full  examination  of   its  instruction   and 
methods.     The  committee  appointed  for  this  purpose 
gave  an  exceedingly  favourable  report,  declaring  that 
they  were  surprised  and  gratified  at  the  attainments 
of  the  pupils  in  Latin.  Greek,  history,  geography,  and 
other  branches,  as  well  as  in  the  catechism  and  in 
the  Scriptures. 

The  school  continued  to  be   a  private  institution 

0  2 


/\ 


t 


20  THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANXJEL   KANT. 

,„  ,703,  ..en  H  received  >^ ^^^^^J^ 

gy„,„«um  «'V*%™;V,ete.  *    ktag  declared 
num."     In  granting  tiis  ?""'«?•,    ^         and  to 

S^::f  rarX.an  sew  .r  tj.  .e.e^a^ 

instruction  of  boys  and  gxrls.     ^^  Xf-ieP-t--^' 
tution  in  Prussia  which  had  a  boa^drng       P 
a  feature  which  attracted  many  foreigners.      ^         .^ 
Russians.    Lieflanders.   and    Courlanders. 

schools  for  the  poor  ^f  \^  ^?;';^^^^^  ,^,  gymnasium, 
Kantspenteightandahalfyearsmth   jy^^  ^^  ^^^ 

entering  it  in  the  spring  of  1732  _«  3  ^^^^^^ 

1  A   r.r,  r^mibt  was  that,  in  spite  ui 
^'' V  t  his  dSre  for  knowledge  was  to  be  grati- 
condition,  his  desire  .     ,-^^^^0^  cannot  have  been 

fied,the  ^7--- ^tr^^^^^^^^^^^^^^        buihling  a  hundred 
very  cheerful    A  descriptio  ^^^^   ^^^^ 

years   later   shows    that   its   (.nee  .^.  ^^e 

gloomy  ;  for  the  small  rooms  wi  h    ow^-^  ng; 
H  suff 'eating   in  summer  ^^J^^^  Z^;'tS.U,  and 
of  them  were  so  d.rk  -^^^^"^^J^ng  -i-e  the 

""  *'^^  "uhe'Sinra^^^^^^^^  '^^^ 

eyes  and  put  the  mma  imu  c.        ^^  contio-uous, 

lltchens  of  the  Vroie^^^v.' .V^rtn^en^^^^^^^ 
and  sent  their  fragrance  into  the  cheerless 

The  rector  of  the  gJ— ^^f;,'  .^Important  ser- 
special  interest  to  us  on  ^^^^^'^l^^^,^  ^ysius, 
vice  he  rendered  Kant      Like  M   p  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^ 

'^'i^^t't  Idt  !el;rdisci  of  the  Wolfian 
an  ardent  I'^^^^*  ^^  ^^^^  some  time  in  pastoral  work 
philosophy.     Having  spen  .     ,         ^j,  1731,  to 

in  other  places,  he  was  called  to  Komgsberg  m 


I   t 


DR.    SCHULZ. 


21 


become  the  pastor  of  one  of  the  churches  and  also  a 
member  of  the  consistory.     Other  influential  positions 
were  soon  added,  for  which  he  was  indebted  to  the 
royal   favour;  thus,   he  was  appointed  Professor   of 
Theology,  and  he  became  a  member  of  the  academic 
senate ;  he  was  made  rector  of  the  Fridericianum,  and 
served   on   important   ecclesiastical    and    educational 
committees.       Schulz    was    a    fine    scholar;    and   at 
Halle,  through  the  influence  of  the  philosopher  Wolf, 
he  obtained  permission  to  deliver  mathematical  and 
philosophical  lectures  in  the  university  before  he  had 
taken  a  degree.     He  possessed  great  mental  vigour, 
superior  organizing  talent,  and  indomitable  zeal.     As 
pastor,  rector,  teacher,  and  administrator,  he  was  emi- 
nently successful.     As   general    inspector  of  schools 
his  service  to  the  cause  of  education  in  Konigsberg 
and   throughout    the    kingdom   was    of    inestimable 
value;  and  it  was  chiefly  through  his  activity  that 
1600  new  schools  were  established.     After  his  death, 
one  of  his  pupils   said,  "  What  a  great  mind  Schulz 
must   have    had,   is  evident  from  the   fact   that   for 
the    greater  part   of  his   life   he   patiently,    actively, 
cheerfully,  with  great  intelHgence,  and  with  blessed 
results,  held  more  than  six  distinct  oJEces,  with  all 
their  labours  and  burdens."  (^) 

This  is  the  man  to  whose  memory  Kant  was  de- 
sirous of  erecting  a  monument.  He  became  the  pastor 
of  the  family  when  Kant  was  but  seven  years  old ; 
and  next  to  the  parents  he  was  most  influential  in 
forming  the  character  of  the  boy.  His  Pietism  was 
the  basis  and  the  impulse  of  all  his  activities.  He 
was  a  faithful  pastor,  was  an  excellent  and  a  power- 
ful preacher.     The  pupil  already  quoted  says,  "  What 


■•-4 


22  THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANQEL   KANT. 

«n  impression  was  made  by  his  edifying,  simple,  mov- 
tng Zuen  e !  He  reached  the  soul,  the  bones  and 
th!  marrow.  As  little  as  one  with  open  eye  can  avoid 
Be^gr  lightning,  so  little  could  one  escape  his 

^rroTir'home  and  in  church,  but  also  in  the 

wot  oniy  brought  under  the  mfluence  of 

Sr    Thflr  wis  L  ™ch  occupied  wi* 

!:k^matters  to  attend  to  the  tusines,  affa,^  rf  *o 

,,™a.,i™  :  *e,e  were  ^^^^^^'^IJ^'^'t^- 
who  was  also  a  zealous  Pietist  and  a  goou  » 
But  Schulz  was  the  ruling  spirit  in  the  rndericianum, 
!nd   ht  power   was    especially   felt   in   its   rehgious 
matagemrnt.      The  spiritual  element  was  the   mos 
prominent  in   the  institution,  and  everything  had  a 
Pietistic  hue.  C)    From  the  character  of  Schulz,  as  w^ 
as   from   the   testimony  of   the   best    pupils    o      he 
school,  including  that  of   Kant,    we  infer  that  the 
Pietism  was  sincere  and  zealous,  and  was  in  genera 
free  from  fanaticism.  ('»)     At  the  same  time  there     s 
,.0   doubt   that    there    was    aii    excess   of   effort   to 
arouse  religious  emotions.      One  is  surprised  at  the 
amount  of  time   devoted  to  devotional  exercises   in 
Stic   schools,    which  were  chiefly  emotional  and 
^^^S  at  a  conviction  of  sin  and  to  effect  conversion^ 
While  in  the  other  schools    of  the    city  two   hours 
a    week     were    given    to    religious    instruction,    in 
the   Fridericianum  the  first  hour    of  each    day   was 
devoted  to  it,  and  every  recitation  was  begun  and 
closed  with  prayer.     Besides  the  Bible,  the  catechisms 
of  Luther.  Spener,  and    Dietrich    were  used  m  the 
school.      On    Sunday  there  were   two   sermons  and 
two  catechizations  in  the  church  connected  with  the 


EELIGIOUS   EXERCISES. 


23 


institution.     All  the  instruction  had  a  religious  aim, 
and  exhortations  were  frequently  connected  with  the 
recitations.      The  original  New   Testament   was  the 
principal  book  used  in  the  study  of  Greek,  and  the 
interpretation    of    that    book    was    the    aim    in   the 
study   of  that  language.     The    historical   instruction 
was  mostly  confined  to  the    history  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.     And  Scheffner,  who  was  a  pupil 
a  little  later  than  Kant,  states  that  on  every  Sunday 
two    boys    from    the    upper    classes    had   to    stand 
before  the  pulpit,    while    Dr.    Schulz,    with   a   sharp 
voice  and  in  a  severe  tone,   catechized  them  on   his 
sermon. 

The  discipline  of  the  institution  was  stern,  and  the 
pupils  regarded  its   severity  as  an  element  of  the  re- 
ligion. Q^)     Whatever  benefits  might  flow  from  them. 
Pietism  and  its  discipline  in  the  gymnasium  could  not 
fail  to  excite  aversion  and  opposition,  particularly  on 
the  part  of  those  who  were  predominantly  intellectual 
and  had  a  passion  for  knowledge.     These  influences 
were  by  no  means  such  as  were  calculated  to  attract 
Kant,  in  whose  nature  emotional  religion  never  struck 
a  sympathetic  chord.     Borowski  says  of  him  that  he 
"  had  no  taste  at  all  for  the  forms  of  piety  or  religious- 
ness which  many  of  the  pupils  adopted,   sometimes 
from  very  ifhpure  motives." 

Whatever  excellences  there  may  have  been  in  the 
rehgion  of  his  home  and  the  gymnasium,  Kant's 
opinion  of  Pietism  in  general  was  by  no  means  favour- 
able. Sometimes  he  spoke  of  it  with  bitterness ;  and 
taking  his  own  words  as  a  commentary  on  its  charac- 
ter, we  are  not  surprised  that  he  turned  from  it  with 
aversion.       He   says,    "  But   it   is  not  contempt    for 


n 


) 


—  w 


24  THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 

piety  which  has  made  Pietism  a  name  to  designate  a 

Let     with   which   a   certain   degree   of   contempt    s 

XV-ociated  ;  but  it  is  the  fantastic  and  -th  all 

appearance  of  humiUty.  proud  assumption  that  th  y 

are    distinguished    as    the     supernaturally    tavoured 

h  Idren  of'heaven,  though  their  conduct,  as  i.r  as  can 

be  seen,  has  not  the  least  advantage  over  those  who 

are  called  by  them  the  children  of  the  ^^^ W-    O 

Pietism  thus  had  its  favourable  and  f  ^f  .^^;"% 
abfe  elements,  and  Kant  was  subject  to  ^oth  lands  of 
influence.     Its  excesses,  its  emotional  character,  and 
L   controversies,  had  a  bad  effect  on  many  mmds^ 
Though  powerful  in  the  province,  it  left  no  endunng 
1-terafy  monuments,  because  ^^s  -mons  and  book 
lacked  depth  and  breadth ;  its  glory  consisted  m  its 
ettal   features,  in  promoting  education  among  th^^ 
masses  and  in  establishing  eleemosynary  institutions 
Tthe  'schools  its  aims  were  of^n  ^rustra^ed^  and  .t 
is  probable  that  both  Kant  and  his  friend  Ruhnken 
refused  to  enter  the  ministry,  though  they  were  sen 
to  the  gymnasium  by  their  parents  to  prepare  for  that 
profession,  because  they  were  unfavourably  affected 
byPietism.     But  while  its  religious  features  repelled 
Kant,  its  moral  elements  exerted  the  deepest  influence 
on  h  m.     In  his  ethical  system,  especially  m  his  stern 
morality  and  in  his  views  of  the  radical  evil  in  huma- 
Tture  and  the  need  of  conversion,  we  see  the  effect 
:? r  Lrly  religious  training.     Pietism  did  no^  wm 
his  heart,  but  it  moulded  his  conscience.        The  weak 
ness  of  Pietism  was  its  drill  system,  into  which  it  fel 
hi  its  exaggerations.   When  the  rehgious  mstruction  of 
children  bfcame  a  strait-jacket,  it  lost  its  attractions 
for  the  youthful  mind  ;  nevertheless,  m  its  onesided- 


INTELLECTUAL    CHARACTER    OP    THE    GYMNASIUM.         25 

ness,  Pietism  forged  that  brass  logical   chain  whose 
last  link  is  the  Categorical  Imperative."  (*^) 

In  intellectual  character  and  educational  advantages 
the  Fridericianum  compared  favourably  with  the  other 
schools  of  that  day.  Not  only  was  it  the  best  of  the 
five  gymnasia  in  Konigsberg,  but  it  was  the  best 
and  most  celebrated  in  the  province.  It  introduced 
improvements  which  were  also  adopted  by  other  insti- 
tutions, and  it  sent  into  the  churches,  schools,  civil 
offices,  and  various  other  spheres,  more  eminent  and 
successful  men  than  any  other  school  in  eastern 
Prussia.  Kant  was  a  pupil  in  its  most  flourishing 
period,  namely,  during  the  first  years  of  the  rectorate 
of  Dr.  Schulz.  His  predecessor,  Lysius,  who  has  been 
pronounced,  next  to  Francke,  the  best  teacher  of  his 
day,  devoted  thirty  years  to  the  development  of  the 
school;  and  Dr.  Schulz  continued  to  conduct  and 
develop  it  in  his  spirit. 

But  notwithstanding  its  superiority  for  that  day, 
it  was  very  inferior  when  compared  with  the  excellent 
German  gymnasia  of  the  present.  Owing  to  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  Latin  language  in  the  gymnasia, 
they  were  commonly  called  Latin  schools ;  but  both 
the  Latin  and  the  Greek  were  taught  mechanically,  as 
a  system  of  rules  and  as  a  discipline  for  the  memory, 
while  the  spirit  of  the  classics  was  neglected.  "  As 
late  as  1779,  Frederick  the  Great  found  it  necessary 
to  enjoin  upon  the  Prussian  gymnasia,  by  means  of  a 
cabinet  order,  a  more  diligent  and  better  study  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  authors,  in  order  that  the  pupils 
might  get  the  substance  as  well  as  the  words,  and 
ideas  as  well  as  a  good  diction."  (^*)  The  German 
language  was  not  thoroughly  taught ;  and  the  instruc- 


1! 


/ 


26  THE   LIFE   OP  IMMANUBL  KANT. 

tion  in  general  was  scholastic  and  formal,  rather  than 

"  ThT VriiSianun.  was  not  free  from  the  defects 
then  :>lon  in  the  Latin  schools  and  .t  abo  suffe-d 
from  the  fact  that,  on  account  of  its  limited  means 
it  was  obliged  to  depend  largely  on  ^tu^^o^^th 
university,  and  candidates  for  the  mmistry,  for  its  m 
Xuctrs''  The   employment   of   so    ^^.^^^J^^^ 
inexperienced  instructors  made  much  machinery  neces 
sa^r  "  The  frequent  change  of  teachers  obliged  the 
dStors  to  follow  a  certain  plan  of  instruction,  which 
prescribed  the  lessons  for  every  course,  every  month 
every  week,  and  even  for   every  hour.     The  teacher 
;a7a  wound-up  watch,  which,  in  the  opmion  of  the 
Pietists,  was  set  correctly  and  went  right.    (  ) 

It  is   evident   from  these    facts,   that  the   general 
character  of  the  gymnasia  and  the  peculiar  con^^on  of 
the   Fridericianum  give  no  assurance  that  Kant  en 
ioyed   the   advantages   of  a  deep  and  broad   culture 
Se  preparing  for  the  university      The  Me-ianu- 
had  the  merit  of  being  the  first  Latin  school  in^e 
city  which  introduced  history,  geography  and  ma  he 
maLs,  as  regular  branches  of  study ;  but  ^^^^^^tZ 
m  them  was  by  no  means  thorough.     The  course  oi 
udyTncTudedUin.  Greek,  Hebrew,  IVench  h^ory 
logic,  mathematics,  and  geography ;  and  the  German 
language  was  taught  in  connexion  with  rhetoric  and 
poetry   but  the  time  for  its  appreciation  as  a  branch 
of  study  had  not  yet  come.     There  was  no  instruction 
in  natural  history  or  physics.     It  is  not  strange  tha 
n  his  mature  years  Kant's  opinion  of  the  intellectual 
character  of  the  gymnasium  was  -«*  ^er^  favourable. 
The  very  thought  of  the  instruction  m  logic  and  mathe- 


^ 


STUDY   OF   THE  CLASSICS, 


27 


matics    made   him   laugh;     and   in    speaking    of    his 
teachers  in  these  branches,  he  said,  "  These  gentle- 
men could  probably  not  have   kindled  into   a  fire  any 
spark  of  philosophy  or  mathematics  which  might  have 
been  in  us."      Cunde,   his   fellow-pupil,   to  whom  he 
made  this    remark,   answered,  "  They  could  blow    it 
out  or  quench  it."     Scheffner  relates  that  his  teacher 
used  the  Greek  New  Testament  as  a  text-book,  and  had 
the  translation  written  between  the  lines.    One  teacher, 
by  the  name  of  Heydenreich,  was,  however,  an  excep- 
tion to  the  general  rule.     He  was  connected  with  the 
school  from  1737 — 1740,  and  taught  the  first  Latin 
class,  which  had  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  lessons  a 
week.     Besides  teaching  the  language,  he  explained 
the  text,  caught  and  communicated  the  spirit  of  the 
classics,    and    interested   and   inspired   his    students. 
Kant  rarely  referred  to  his  teachers  in  the  gymnasium  ; 
but  Borowski  says  that  he  spoke  with  great  esteem  of 
Heydenreich  more  than  a   hundred   times.     To   this 
"  elegant  Latin   scholar,"  as   Kant  called  him,  he  was 
indebted  for  that  inspiration  which  he  failed  to  find  in 
the  other  branches,  and  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  Latin  classics  with  great  zeal.    Not  only  was  this 
his  favourite  study  in  the  gymnasium,  it  was  the  only 
one  for  which  he  manifested  a  preference,  and  in  which 
he  made  any  special  progress.     Kant,  Kuhnken,  and 
Cunde,  frequently  met  to  read  Latin  authors  who  were 
not  included  in  the   course ;  and  Ruhnken,  who  had 
more  money  at  his  command  than  his  comrades,  took 
pains   to  furnish   the    best   editions   of  the   classics. 
They  were  all   gifted   young  men,    with   intellectual 
tastes  and  aspirations  ;  they  were  diligent  and  success- 
ful  students;  and  in  the  pursuit   of  their  favourite 


28  THE    LIFK    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

oases  in  Kant's  youth,  and  he  -umbered  -th^^^^^^^^ 
pleasure  the  happy  hours   spent  with  Ruhnken 
Cunde  over  his  favourites  among  the  ancients 

The  diligent  study  of  the  classics  was  of  great  and 
ine  uiugc  J  .  ijie  him 

permanent  value  to  Kant.  JNot  oniy  uii 
to  use  the  Latin  language  easily  and  gracefully,  which 
s  eXd  n  from  his  dissertations  in  that  language  but 
aTsoTaid  the  basis  for  that  broad  humanistic  culture 
wWcl  was  so  noticeable  in  his  conversations  and 
Tectts      In  l^is  fi-t  book  written  when  the  im^^^^^^ 

sion  of  the  classics  was  sUH  ^f^^^^^^^^t  tt 
TiiprpMus  are  quoted,  in  nis  couveioci 
^ue"  r'f-ed'to  the  Latin  authors  ;  and  even  m  dd 
ZT  when  his  memory  for  recent  impressions  had 
bS'ome  very  weak,  he  was  still  able  to  quote  easily 
a^d Trrlctly  numerous  passages  from  Latm  writers, 
andcorrec   y  ^.^   favourite   author, 

LuCS     "De  N  tuTa  Rerum."     In  1801  a  friend 

nfTlt    speaking   of  his  association  with   Ruhnken 

.     «^  ^^''^'  ^m    wrote    "  Kant    never   forgot   the 

itinlCntSmr  tnished  him  by  the  ancients ; 

!ndCn  now,  at  his  great  age.  his  memory  does  not 

IreTyretar  the  mosf  beautiful  verses  and  sentences 

7tl  Latin  poets,   orators,  and  historians    but   the 

remembrance  of  them  frequently  inspires  him.    (  ) 

melwe  consider  the  character  of  the  gymnasium, 
we  are  nit  surprised  that  Kant  manifested  no  pre- 
Trence  for  tte  subjects  which  afterwards  engrossed 
hTs  Mention.     It  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  natural 


? 


NO    PKEFEBENCE    FOR   PHILOSOPHY. 


29 


science  had  no  place  in  the  curriculum,  and  that 
mathematics  and  logic  were  not  taught  in  such  a  way 
as  to  inspire  any  love  for  them ;  and  the  boy  had  not 
yet  developed  sufficient  taste  for  these  branches  to 
make  them  subjects  of  independent  study.  He  was 
still  dependent  on  his  teachers  and  surroundings  for  his 
inspiration  and  preferences,  and  there  was  no  evidence 
of  a  decided  natural  inclination  or  gift  in  any  particular 
direction.  Not  until  he  was  brought  under  the 
influence  of  other  instructors,  in  the  university,  was 
there  any  indication  that  his  speciality  would  not  be 
philology.  Ruhnken  said  that  at  the  gymnasium  he 
himself  had  a  preference  for  philosophy,  Kant  for 
philology;  yet  the  former  made  his  reputation  in 
philology,  the  latter  in  philosophy,  and  Ruhnken's  last 
work  was  "  Scholia  in  Platonem,"  while  Kant's  last 
intellectual  labour  was  devoted  to  the  completion  of  his 
philosophy.  Kypke,  another  fellow-pupil  of  Kant,  said 
that  at  that  time  they  did  not,  and  could  not,  have  the 
least  idea  that  Kant  would  ever  devote  himself  to 
philosophy.  And  Ruhnken  afterwards  regretted  that 
Kant  had  abandoned  the  green  fields  of  the  humani- 
ties, to  wander  on  the  barren  steppes  of  metaphysics. 

Already  at  the  gymnasium  Kant  was  ambitious  for 
authorship.  As  scholars  sometimes  Latinized  their 
names,  he  proposed  to  write  his  "  Kantius,"  on  the 
title-pages  of  his  books,  while  Ruhnken  expected  to 
become  known  as  "  Ruhnkenius,"  and  Cunde  as 
"  Cundeus."  Ruhnken  was  the  only  one  who  carried 
out  this  intention,  and  as  Ruhnkenius  he  attained 
fame  as  an  authority  in  classical  literature. 

Kant  and  Ruhnken  never  met  each  other  after  they 
left  the  gymnasium.     The  latter  went  to  Wittenberg, 


/ 


30  THE   LIFE    OF   IMMANDEL   KANT. 

to  Study  the  classics,  philosophy,  and  law  ^then  to 

scholars  of  last  century.     Ruhnken  was  one  y 

than  Kant,  and  died  in  1797.  ,  ,.  the  evm- 

Ounde    Kant's  other  intimate  friend  at  the   gym 
Ounde,  J^a  fellow-student  in  the  university. 

IftHing  his  studies  at  Koaigsberg,  he  taught  for 
a  "n  *e  Fridericianum,  and  then  became  recto 
TataL  schooHn  Ras^nW-     He  -  --Ue^ 
^„  and  a  supenor  teache.     It  J  sa,d         ^^  ^^ 

stupendous  learning,       wbicn   womu  ,,     .  ^^ 

honour  to  any  university,  an  incomparable  method  in 
:  u  .r.A\  deen  insight  into  human  nature.  He 
r  rr  of  t Sl^t,  aud  sterling  worth ;  and 

wnen  ne  well  miserable  condition  was 

this  place  "-  -  "  *;l  ITIS  in  1V59.  This 
the  --7"  °2ken  and  Cuude,  seem  to  have  dis- 
r;e!  *e'  mo*  nitual  vigour  among  the  student^ 
Tthat  time  in  the  gymnasium,  and  this,  together  with 
thet  mor^l  charactfr  and  their  aspirations,  formed  the 

^t-r^ '^STtlears  old  When  he  entered  the 
^.nasium,  a;-i.J^u  ^^en  h,  «  «  .  enter  ^  ^^ 


OBSCUEITY    OF    HIS    YOUTH. 


31 


i^ 


appreciation  of  the  paternal  spirit  of  the  institution, 
and  of  the  earnest  efforts  to  form  the  characters  and 
develop  the  minds  of  its  pupils.  The  school  at  least 
prepared  him  for  the  university,  and  thus  opened  the 
way  for  him  to  a  learned  career.  That  he  was  dihgent 
and  successful  in  his  studies  is  evident  both  from  his 
associations  and  his  attainments. 

Little  else  is  known    of   Kant's   youth.     We  have 
reason  to  regret  this  fact,  for  it  is  alwaj^s  interesting 
to  watch   the  first   unfolding  of  the    aspirations  and 
powers  of  one  who  has   moved    the  world  out  of  its 
usual   course,  and  we  are  anxious   to   learn    whether 
the  great  man  is  really  found  in  the  boy.     Even  the 
biographies    of    him    by    intimate    friends    give    very 
unsatisfactory  accounts  of  his  early  years.     Nearly  all 
who  had  known  him  in   his    youth  had    died   before 
him ;  and  the  sister  who  survived  him  probably  remem- 
bered  nothing   that    was    striking   or    characteristic. 
Kant  himself  did  not  like  to  speak  of  his  youth,  its 
memory   evidently   having  little  that  was  attractive. 
Being  the  child  of  a  poor  mechanic,  small,  timid,  weak 
and  even    delicate,  it  is    not   singular  that   the  busy 
world  paid  no  attention  to  this  boy,  who  gave  no  promise 
of  his  future  greatness.     It  was  a  sad  period  of  life, 
with  but  few  of  the  pleasures  and  scarcely  any  of  the 
poetry  of  youth.     He  was  extremely  sensitive ;  this  is 
confirmed    by    the     story    that    he    was    so    annoyed 
because  a  boj  said  that  his  name  "  Cant "   should  be 
pronounced  as  if> written  with  a  ''  Z,"  that  he  afterwards 
wrote  it  Kant.     He  was  predisposed  to  melancholy ; 
and   his  poverty,  his  self-denial,  and   the    difficulties 
which  beset  him,  were  calculated  to  deepen  his  gloom. 
His  family  was  not  so  situated   as  to  give  him   any 


32  THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

1    J  1  ^  T^nwprful  friends  to  en- 

courage  and  help  mm.  ^    ^^ 

own  "intellectual  --^^^^^  ^.e:: ^^^^^^^^  efforts, 
achievements  ^^^f2tTjZ  find  a  melancWy 
Most    persons    of   mature   y  ^^^ 

pleasure  in  -^/^tlntrusasm'oTtke  spring  of  life; 
inspirations   and^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

but  when  Kant  ^^^f^  hitellectual  standpoint, 

to  estimate  evevyt^img  from  a^^^^^^  ^^^^^ 

l.e  looked  on  youth  as  hp^nod  of  .^  ^  ^^ 

Kant's  acquaintance  for  many  y  ^^  ^^^.^ 

the  Egyptian  bondage  -  -"J  ,,,  ....eries  of 
kept,  states  that  Kan^  ^^   J  ^^,  ,,,t  he 

the   slavery   of   youth   m   tu  ^^^^   ^^ 

declared  that   fear   and  ^^^-^   -^;f^^^.     This  is  an 

reflected  on   ^Jje   b^^^  douh    bLed  on  remarks  of 
exaggeration  but   t  is  no  do^  ^  ,^  ^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^  ^,^ 

Y'-     oftisyo^b  that  Kant  depreciated  the  years 
slavery  ot  ^^^ J^^^^  ^^^  deeper,  namely,  the 

of  childhood,  but  US  ^e^^o^'J^^       of  childhood;  for 
defective  knowledge  and  ]udgment  ot  c  ^^^  ^^^ 

this  reason  he  dedar^^^^*:;;  :f tLw  to  that 

7\nrod'"Tut'r:t^^^^^^ 

;:::  Wea  to  ^^^l:^^^^  tbe  one 
Two  stories  are  re  ated^  the 

an   evidence    of   occasaona  aroused, 

other,  of  unusual  P— ^  ^/^  ™^^,  characteristic  of 
Forgetfulnoss  «*  ^^J^^.f  ^"rwhole  life  absent- 
him;  -d^Vf,^:\':Tf\isfaihngs.  When  he 
mindedness  ^^^d^^^/f'    ,  frequently  punished  for 

tiere:rS,rro..i^.y --"'.- 


STORIES    OF    HIS    BOYHOOD. 


33 


laid  down  his  books  to  play  with  other  boys,  and  after 
the  play  he  went  to  school,  never  thinking  of  the 
books  till  the  teacher  asked  for  them.  But  on  another 
occasion  his  presence  of  mind  probably  saved  his  life. 
When  about  eight  years  old,  he  attempted  to  walk 
over  a  log  lying  across  a  ditch  filled  with  water.  He 
had  taken  only  a  few  steps  when  the  log  commenced 
to  roll  and  he  began  to  get  dizzy.  As  he  could 
neither  retreat  nor  stand  still,  he  fixed  his  eyes  on  a 
point,  on  the  other  side  of  the  ditch,  in  a  line  with 
the  log,  ran  towards  it  without  looking  down,  and  thus 
escaped. 


J) 


If 


34 


THE 


LIFE    OF    IMMANUBIi   KANT. 


CHAPTER  II. 

.     n^TVEU^lTY         BEGINNING     OF     ATJTHOE- 
C!TITT>ENT     IN     THE     UNIVEBSUK. 
STUDENl  ^^^^^      ^^^^^^    ^^^^^^ 

1740—1755. 
t     TTniversity  of  Konisterg-Matviculated 
Change  in  the  G^'^jrf*        s  IILs-Favouvite  teacher-Reasons 
as  Student  of  Theology-Stud.e  jj^,,,^. 

for  not  entering  ^^ ^""f  7u";;f--Wo  k  on  CoLogony. 
tion-First  book— Family  tutoi      W  o. 

J.ST  before  Kant  entered  the  ^^^^J^Z 

^^^^  .'    ^S%eTu:;;   a  "Jdthe  religion     t.e 
Prussia,   whict    senous  y  ^^  ^^^^ 

literature,   and    the    Me    ot  ^^^^  ^      ^^  ^^^^^ 

Frederick  Wilbam  I.  ^'^^'  'I^  commonly   called   the 
1740,  his  son  Jrede-k  JL,   ---    y^^^^^^.^^    ^^ 

Great,   ascended    the Jh^^f^^  P^^    .^    ^^^^^^. 

Frederick  Wilbam    for    "^^'^^^^^       .   ^.  jo^  for 

teristic  of  the  Hohen.ol  eru  Wy      ^-  P 
giants  as  soldiers  was  ^^^^  a  wh  m  ot  P    P^.^  .^_ 

His  military  e-c^-^-nd  routt^^^^^  mechanical, 

press  on  the  People;anf  ^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^^, 

For  present  notions  h     go^  ^.^^^^^^  ^^  ^^. 

and  too  personal.     StncUy  ^^.^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^ 

pected  his  people  to  have  t  ^^^^^  .^  ^.^  ^^^^^. 

rd^nTot::^^;^^^^^^^^^^^^^     as  m  trammg  his  son.he 


CHANGE   OP   GOVERNMENT. 


35 


seems  to  have  had  no  idea  of  tolerance.     The  spirit  of 
his  administration  was  most  powerfully  ^elt  in  cities 
like  Konigsberg,  where    the  civil  officers,  who   were 
his  instruments  rather  than  his  agents,  were  numerous. 
In  every  department  of  life  there  was  a  cramped  feel- 
ing, a  lack  of  room  for  development,  and  a  want  of 
spontaneity.     But  on  the  accession  of  Frederick  II. 
to  the  throne,  who  himself  had  keenly  felt  the  galling 
tyranny  of  his  father,  the  change,  as  is  usual  in  re- 
actions, was  very  marked;^  in  some  cases  there  was  a 
bound  from  one  extreme  to  the  other.     Not  that  his 
reign  was  less  personal  than  that  of  his  father,  but  its 
spirit  was  different.     For  a  long  time  sceptical  ten- 
dencies  had  run  parallel  with-Orthodoxy  and  Pietism ; 
the  Government  had,  however,  used  its  power  to  sup- 
press them.     Under  the  new  king  there  was  no  longer 
to  be  any  religious   restraint ;  for,  as  he  said  at  the 
beginning  of  his  reign,   every   man  was  to  have  the 
liberty  to  be  saved  in  his  own  fashion.     The  era  of 
tolerance  which  he  introduced   did  not  merely  affect 
religion;    he   emphasized    the    freedom    of    thought, 
always  excepting  cases  where  it  conflicted  with   his 
political   supremacy.     Persons  who  had  been    exiled 
during  his  father's  reign  were  recalled ;  and  it  was  one 
of  his  first  acts  to   invite   the    philosopher  Wolf  to 
return  to  Halle.     His  French  teachers,  as  well  as  the 
literary  tendency    of  the  age,  had  created  in  him  a  - 
preference  for  the  French    language  and  literature; 
his  libraries  in  Potsdam,  consisting  almost  wholly  of 
French   books,    still    testify  to   this    preference.     He 
corresponded  with  eminent  Frenchmen,  invited  them 
to  his  court,  and  was  greatly  under  their  influence, 
being  especially   intimate  with  Voltaire.     The  royal 

D  2 


m 


m 


j.y  THE   MFE   01?   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

favour  promoted  French  frlvoUiy  and  scepticism,  as 
well  as  L  popularity  of  French  l^teratur^. 

The  new  kincr  inaugurated  a  new  era  for  i'russia 
The  new  Kin  s  ^^^.^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^g^^ 

and  during  his  long  leigu  ..^    PT,„„„;nff  Herder, 

^r,  ftprmanv      The  literary  activity  ot  Lessmg,  ne        . 
in  laermany.     ^   ^  ,  .„   •'  p ^„, ,_  winckelmann,  and 

Germany  naa  Prussia,    and  his 

the  enlargement  and  the  giory 

consequent  popularity,  made  his  ^^^^^f^'^^^^l' 
influential;  and  under  ^m  who  was  called  the  Great 
.J.     TT^r...   the  Royal  Philosopher,  the  Only  One  (der 
Etzlef^teat  iange  was  Lought  in  the  thought 
Sd  Se 'of  L  kingdom  during  the  forty-six  years  of 

'Vhffirsil'en  years  of  Kant's  life  belonged  to  the 
reign  of  Frederick  William.     During  the  twenty-seven 
vears  of  his  sovereignty  the  people  became  addicted 
Ths  mechanical  ways;  and  Kant  imbibed  this  spin 
of  the  times    during  the  formative  period    of    his 
cLracter  and  his  hfe  was  characterized  by  a  regularity 
whTh    became    mechanical    and    -notonou.     His 
larliest  religious  impressions  were   such  as  this  king 
Welf  had  fostered.     The  whole  tenor  of  the  Govern- 
^rt  was  changed  when  Kant  entered  the  university  ; 
Td  it   is  problble  that  by  the  change  his  religious 
vlw     were  also   affected.     We  find  that  he   passed 
r       fV.P  Pietism  by  which  his  youth  was  mfluenced, 
foThe  til   Sng  of  the  age  of  Frederick  the  Great ; 
ust  such  a  reaction  is  found  in  his  case  as  that  which 
Tok  plte  in  the  Government  when  the  new  monarch 
ascended  the    throne.     Kant,  however,  retained  the 


UNIVERSITY   OF    KONIGSBERG. 


37 


\ 


stern  morality  which  characterized  the  preceding  king, 
and  this  saved  him  from  the  frivolity  which  was 
encouraged  by  royal  example  under  Frederick  the 
Great. 

The  University  of  Konigsberg,  which  Kant  entered 
in  the  autumn  of  1 740,  and  with  which  he  was  con- 
nected during  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  was  founded 
m  1544,  by  Duke  Albert.    Melanchthon,  whom  he  con- 
sulted  respecting  the  teachers,   sent    his  son-in-law, 
Sabinus,  who  was  made  rector  for  life.     For  the  first 
two  centuries  the  history  of  this  institution  was  not 
brilliant;  and  at  the  close  of  its  second  century,  when 
Kant  became  a  student,  it  occupied  an  obscure  posi- 
tion   among    the   .German    universities.     Neither  its 
intellectual   life  nor  its  educational  advantages  were 
such  as  to  give  it  prominence.  (")     Its  strength  was  in 
Its  theological  faculty,  to  which  at  times  nearly  one 
half  of  the  students  belonged,  while  there  were  com- 
paratively few    in    the    philosophical    faculty.     The 
students  were  mainly  from  the  Province  of  Prussia, 
Couriand,  Poraerania,    Silesia,   and    the     Protestant 
portion  _of   Polish   Prussia.     Thus    its    students,   as 
well  as  its  location,  belonged  rather  to  the  border  of 
Germany  than  to  its  heart. 

If  we  take  a  map  of  Germany  and  glance  at  the 
surroundings  of  KSnigsberg,  we  are  at  once  struck 
with  its  intellectual  isolation ;  before  the  introduction 
of  railways,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century,  this  was 
much  more  complete  than  at  present  It  was  a  fron- 
tier city  which  had  little  communication  with  the  heart 
of  Germany,  being  remote  from  other  universities,  as 
well  as  from  Berlin,  Weimar,  and  other  intellectual 
and  literary  centres.     The  literature  and  science  from 


33  THE    Lli'E    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 

Otter  quarters  ^^^^f  J"  ;^lZ:^'^^^ 
quently  there  was  a   ack  «J  ^^^ryC^^^^^^^ 
communicated  by  contact  -^  ^  f  |^^^^^,,,  B.^k,  of 

characters  and  --tr^^^.^^^^JJ^rote,   "  As  is  well 

r   .    le  seln  only  after  long  years."     As  a  rule, 
places    are  seen  on  y  purchasers   were 

f '   '^to  K^rsbt^g  by  tt  book Jellers,  so  that  it  was 
brought  to  Konigsberg  oy  ^  ^y^^  ^^y.     As 

difficult  to  keep  up  with  the  litei  ature  j  ^^^^^_ 

IX         i7ftl    5^Tiotlier  writer,  BaczKO,  saiu,  w 
late  as  ^J^^'^^^^    ^f  p^^.^i^,  of  which  Komgsberg 

'"tL   capitll     "Pru-ia  is  decried  in  Germany  as 
IS  the    capital .       ri  ^^^      ^^^^ 

almost  a  learned  S!^-;^;^^  07  the  German  book 
distance  from  Leipzig,  the  centre  ^^^^^^  ^.^^^  ^^^ 

trade,  it  is  natural  t^at  we  ^^thorship  is 

literary  novelties  come    ate  to  u^^^  a  ^^^^^^^ 

not  ^^^onve^^'^ll^ZZl/ont  his  system  "  on 
writer  speaks  of  Kant  ^^^        ,°  ^etely  forgotten 

thePregel    m  one  of  the  -  ^^^^^. ^^^,,-,,,,,1^  ,f. 

roTedU  litfof  the  university,  and  it  partly  accounts 
t  tLtct  Vat  the  first  books  of  Kant  were  almost 

"'SeXt  nitt  also  be  taken  into  account  in  con- 

■?      I  Want's  studies  at  the  university,  and  his  whole 
sidermg  Kant  s  stuaies  .        ^^^^3  of  Germany, 

as  well  as  'l^^^  ^        ^^^^  matter  and  method,  was 
instruction,  both  as  rjPe^^s  ^^^^ 

'Z^"^Lt£TZ^^^^  rather  with  the  forms 
rally  prosy  anu  »  making  nice  but 

of  thought  than  with  t^-^^^^^^^^       l^,J  ,,btleties 
useless  scholastic  distinctions,  ricn  m  te 


STATE    OF    GERMAN    LITERATURE. 


39 


concerning  matters  of  little  importance,  and  burdened 
with  a  method  which  made  a  show  of  learning  with- 
out real,  living  scholarship.  A  stiff  and  stilted 
pedantic  mannerism  still  prevailed.  The  teachers  were 
often  incompetent,  and  many  of  the  lectures  were 
delivered  in  Latin  which  was  anything  but  classic. 
Instead  of  promoting  genuine  and  thorough  scbolar- 
sbip,  it  seemed  rather  to  be  the  principal  aim  of  the 
instruction  to  furnish  the  student  with  the  means  of 
successfully  passing  the  examination  required  by  the 
state. 

The  German  language  was  greatly  neglected,  and  it 
was  depreciated  by  Germans  themselves,  when  com- 
pared  with  the  Latin,  French,  and  EngHsh ;  indeed,  it 
was  still  a  matter  of  dispute,    which  of  the   various 
dialects  should  be  used  for  a  national  literature.     The 
right  to  use  the  German  language  for  scholarly  works 
was  just  beginning  to  assert  itself.     When  C.  P.  Wolf 
pubhshed  the  first  philosophical  work  in  German,  it 
created  surprise;    and   in   an  appendix  he  explained 
German  words  by  means  of  the  Latin.     A  vigorous, 
independent  literature  hardly  seemed  to  be  a  desidera- 
tum  in  the  estimation  of  writers,  so  persistently  were 
foreign  models  chosen  for  imitation.     Gottsched,  who 
left  Konigsberg   for  Leipzig   in  the  same   year   that 
Kant  was  born,  contended  for  French  models,  while 
Bodmer  and  the  Swiss  preferred  the  English;  and  it 
required  men  of   genius    hke  Lessing,    Schiller,    and 
Goethe,  to  reveal  the  power  of  the  German  language 
and  to  prove  the  possibility  of  an  independent  German 
literature.     The  founder  of  assthetics  as  the  science  of 
the  beautiful,  Baumgarten,  was  indeed  living,  but  his 
system  was  not  published  till  the  middle  of  the  century, 


'% 


4Q  THE   LllTS   OF   IMMANUEL   KA.NT. 

and  then  it  gave  elements  rather  than  a  science.  The 
literary  disputes  of  the  day  F«-^  *^'^^^^.  ™ 
subiect  of  taste   and  criticism  was    mvolved  m  con- 

;     .  J  fo^Titv      T^essinff  Winckelmann,  Kant, 

fusion  and  uncertainty,     l^essmg,      i 

and  Schiller,  introduced  light  and  order.    In  the  natu 
:i  s:iences,'the  mechanical  views  of  -t-  ab^^^^^^^ 

the  attention  of  philosophers,  '^\'^''\X^ZrZ 
being  Newton  and  his  school,  together  with  Descartes 
andLibmtz,  and  their  followers.  In  metaphysics,  the 
dogmlitn  ;f  the  Wolfian  school  held  almost  undis- 

^"Tte"r:vival    of  letters   was  imminent   when  Kant 
entered  the  university,  but  he  did  not  have  the  benefit 
of  Tt  during  his  studies.     Klopstock  was  born  m  the 
s!me  year  as  Kant,  but  he  began  his  university  course 
fivTy  Jars  later;  Winckelmann  -tared  the  univer^yof 
Halle  two  years  before  Kant  entered  t^at  °^f  ^'f ' 
bere  •  Lessing  was  five  years  younger  than  Kant,  and 
was  ^tin  a  sfhool-boy  when  the  latter  was  already  a 
Zd  n  •  Kant  had  ended  his  university  course  several 
vtars  before  Goethe's  birth,  and  had  been  a  teacher  four 
Tars  when  Schiller  was  born  ;  Herder,  Wieland  Jacobi 
S  in  fact,  the  whole  galaxy  of  ^-maVs  ^htes 
literary   period,   belong  to  a  later  time     han  Kant  s 
student    life.     These    names,    however,   indicate   the 
chTacter  of  the  period  which  was  about  to  be  maugu- 
ra  ed  a  period  in  which  Kant's  name  was  one  of    he 
mtst    eminent.      With    all  the  disadvantages  of  the 
Z  it  was  a  time  of  fermentation  and  of  grand  oppor- 
Sitfes.     As  an  epoch  was  approaching,  it  was  an  age 
when  great  problems  demanded  solution,  when  doubts 
levelopedthe  intellect,  when  sharp  conflicts  aroused 
thought,  and  when  the  confusion  itself  created  oppor- 


INTELLECTUAL    CHARACTER    OF   THE    UNIVERSITY.        41 

tunities  for  a  master-mind.  The  man  who  could 
master  the  different  tendencies,  and  could  harmonize 
their  conflicting  elements,  would  find  the  crisis  itself 
the  occasion  for  the  greatest  intellectual  results.  Only 
when  we  consider  the  difficulties,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  rare  opportunities,  on  the  other,  can  we  com- 
prehend the  career  of  Kant. 

The  University  of  Konigsberg  suffered  more  than 
many  others  from  the  evils  enumerated.  At  the  opening 
of  the  century  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  was  still 
taught ;  in  the  second  decade  a  Privat-Docent  intro- 
duced the  Wolfian  system.  In  1729  Professor  Bock 
wrote,  "  The  university  is  in  so  miserable  a  condition 
that  it  does  not  seem  unlike  a  trivial  school ;  philosophy 
is  afflicted  with  a  hectic  fever,  and  the  other  sciences 
are  also  badly  enough  cultivated."  The  affliction  of 
philosophy  was  probably  connected  with  the  fact  that 
Wolf  was  expelled  from  Halle  and  Prussia  in  1723, 
and  it  was  dangerous  to  teach  his  system  in  the  uni- 
versities of  the  kingdom.  A  few  years  later,  however, 
an  aUiance  was  formed  between  Pietism  and  the  Wolfian 
philosophy  in  Konigsberg,  mainly  through  the  influence 
of  Dr.  Schulz,  after  which  this  philosophy  prevailed  in 
the  university. 

For  the  study  of  mathematics  no  superior  advan- 
tages were  afforded.  Professor  Kraus,  who  taught 
mathematics  in  the  university  many  years  later,  de- 
clared that  Konigsberg  had  always  had  men  who  under- 
stood  mathematics,  and  still  has ;  but  that  as  long  as 
the  sun  had  shone  on  the  city,  it  had  not  been  able 
to  boast  of  a  good  mathematician.  Nor  did  chemistry, 
natural  history,  technology,  or  political  science,  fare 
any  better.     The  division  of  labour  was  far  less  com- 


'Ill 


^2  THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 

plete  than  at  present,  and  the  exclusive  devotion  of  a 
Lcherto  a  speciality,  and  the  ^^^^^^X^  and 
ficiency  in  it,  were    exceptions,     ^ven  theology  and 
xnathematics  were  taught  by  the  same  man,  Langhausen 
Wff  prof  essor  extraordinary  of  theology  and  professor 
L  ordinary  of  mathematics. (-)     J.  G-  Bock  was  at  the 
ame  trmeVofessor  of  speculative  philosophy  and  of 
poetry   an 'evidence  that  speculative  phdosophy  was 
not  mlde  very  prominent.     It  was,  however,  charac 
"Iticofthe'age  to  apply  philosophy  to  everything 
anT^wo  profesLs  were  appointed  to  teach  practical 
or  applied  philosophy.     Most  of  the  P-f essors  m  the 
philosophical   faculty  were    unknown  m   --ce  and 
fetters  and  not  one  of  them  was  celebrated.     There 
were  among   them   men   of   respectable   scholarship; 
but    in   gef eral    the    teaching    had    become   hfeless 
and  was   little   calculated  to   arouse  and  mspire  the 

^Itt's^preference  for  the  Latin  language  and  litei.. 
ture  might  have  continued  at  the  -— ^^^  ^^  ^/^^^^^^ 
there  found  a  good  instructor  in  Latm.  The  revival 
STnterTst  in  the  classics,  which  had  begun  m  Leipzig 
r  Pottin^en  did  not  yet  affect  the  University  of 
Kti^sC  Probably  Ruhnken  went  to  Wittenberg, 
S^r  gSatingatthe  Fridericianum,  because  Konigs- 

^  offered,  f  J  att^e^^^^^^ 

rnri;cXrhis:trtX-^^^^^^^^ 

of    his    instructors,  now    made   speciahties   of  other 
Ijtts,  in  none  of  which  the  gymnasium  had  offered 

%:taTS;ulated  as  a  student  of  theology,  though 
it  i?dlubtful  whether  even  then  he  had  any  inclination 


FAVOUKITE    PROFESSORS. 


43 


r\ 


for  that  study.  His  mind  and  liis  preferences  were 
too  little  developed,  and  he  knew  his  own  powers  too 
little,  to  determine  finally  his  intellectual  course.  At 
that  time  parents  generally  decided  the  calling  of  their 
children,  even  without  consulting  them.  He  had  been 
sent  to  the  gymnasium  to  prepare  for  the  ministry ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  memory  of  his  mother,  and 
the  influence  of  his  father  and  of  Dr.  Schulz,  deter- 
mined his  matriculation  in  the  university  as  a  theological 
student.  This  did  not  interfere  with  the  hearing  of 
lectures  in  other  departments,  nor  did  it  obhge  him  to 
make  a  speciality  of  theology  ;  and  whenever  he  desired 
it,  he  could  be  transferred  to  another  faculty.  Indeed, 
theological  students  were  expected  to  take  a  course  in 
philosophy  first,  in  order  that  they  might  be  the  better 
prepared  for  theology. 

Professor  Teske,  who  was  a  good  scholar,  had  the 
department  of  physics.  Kant  attended  his  lectures, 
and  was  more  indebted  to  him  than  to  any  other 
professor  in  ordinary.  But  Martin  Knutzen,  professor 
extraordinary,  more  than  any  one  else,  moulded  his 
intellect  and  determined  his  preferences  and  his  future 
career.  Born  in  1713,  he  was  appointed  professor 
extraordinary  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  was  twenty- 
seven  years  old  when  Kant  entered  the  university,  and 
was  never  promoted  to  a  professorship  in  ordinary.  (^^) 
His  lectures  extended  over  many  subjects  of  philosophy 
and  physics,  including  logic,  metaphysics,  rational 
psychology,  natural  philosophy,  morals,  natural  law, 
rhetoric,  mnemonics,  and  mathematics.  Kant  not  only 
attended  his  lectures,  but  also  took  part  in  the  meet- 
ings which  he  held  for  disputations  and  for  the 
examination  of  students  on  the  subjects  of  his  lee- 


44 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


PKOFESSOE   KNUTZEN. 


45 


tures.     Knutzen  was  a  disciple  of  the  Leibmtz-Wolfian 
philosophy,  and  in  religion  was  a  Pietist ;  his  attain- 
ments  were   unusual,   his   reading   was    varied    and 
extensive ;  and  as  his  gifts  as  a  teacher  were  extra- 
ordinary, he  was  deservedly  popular  with  the  students. 
Besides  being  a  laborious  student,  he  lectured  four  or 
even  five  times  a  day,  and  overwork  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  cause  of  his  death,  in  1751,  when  only 
thirty-seven  years  old.     His  activity  was  not  confined 
to  the  university,  but  he  extended  his  reputation  by 
means    of    writings     on     philosophical,     theological, 
nhvsical,  and  mathematical  topics.  (  ) 
^Professor  Knutzen's  lectures  embraced  the  subjects 
which   Kant   pursued   with    most   pleasure   while    a 
Itudent  in  the  university;  and  after  he  fimshed  h  s 
course,  mathematics,  physics,  metaphysics  and  morals 
were  his  specialities.     Kant,  however,  did  not  at  this 
time  make  the  study  of  metaphysics  Prominent      Now 
and  for  years  afterwards  he  devoted  himsef  chiefly  to 
lathemLics  and  physics.     The  influence  of  his  mathe 
matical  studies  is  apparent  in  his  great  works,  b  mg 
evident  from  his  frequent  references  to  mathematics, 
and  from  his   demand  for  exact   definitions  and  for 
demonstrations  which  have  mathematical   certainty ; 
and  his  entire    philosophy  reveals  the   mathematical 

The  personal  intercourse  of  a  professor  may  be 
more  influential  than  his  learned  lectures,  in  giving  the 
student  intellectual  inspiration,  and  in  developmg  his 
mental  tastes  and  his  moral  character.  The  young 
teacher  who  can  enter  with  warmth  into  sympathy 
with  an  eager  student,  may  have  a  decided  advantage 
over  the  aged  professor.      Kant  entered  into  closer 


personal  relations  with  Knutzen  than  with  his  other 
teachers.  Besides  hearing  his  lectures  and  taking  part 
in  his  reviews  and  discussions,  he  also  consulted  him 
about  his  studies,  and  conversed  with  him  on  learned 
subjects.  The  teacher,  pleased  with  his  abilities  and 
thirst  for  knowledge,  placed  his  library  at  Kant's 
disposal,  and  gave  him  directions  in  his  reading ;  and 
it  was  in  this  way  that  the  eager  student  became 
acquainted  with  the  works  of  eminent  scholars, 
including  those  of  Newton.  But  this  favourite  teacher 
did  more  than  influence  his  students  to  become 
learned;  he  aimed  to  make  them  originators  of 
thought,  not  mere  imitators  ;  and  thinkers,  instead  of 
mere  learners. 

There  was  a  striking  resemblance  between  this 
teacher  and  his  aspiring  and  susceptible  pupil ;  and 
much  that  has  been  said  of  Knutzen  might  also  be 
said  of  Kant.  Their  intellectual  specialities  were  the 
same  till  the  end  of  life ;  but  in  religion  they  differed, 
since  Kant  did  not  adopt  his  teacher's  Pietistic  views.' 
They  were  both  laborious  students  ;  both  were  learned 
and  were  polymathists ;  both  were  thinkers,  and  both 
aimed  to  make  their  students  thinkers.  While  Kant, 
at  the  age  when  Knutzen  died,  had  probably  displayed 
more  originality  than  his  teacher,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  on  the  whole  he  had  revealed  more  mental 
breadth  or  greater  intellectual  vigour.  The  pupil, 
however,  attained  a  lasting  and  world-wide  fame,  while 
the  teacher  was  forgotten. 

In  the  university.  Professors  Knutzen  and  Teske 
took  the  place  of  Heydenreich  in  the  gymnasium;  and 
mathematics  and  physics  took  the  place  of  the  daisies. 
A  writer,   speaking  of  Kant,  says,  "  His  teachers  in 


•  : 


(u\ 


I 


^g  THE    LTFK    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 

^mathematics    and   physics.   Professors   Knut-n   and 

l^t  rftfntifely,  but  he  also  took  pains  to  ob  a. 
explanations  of  difficult  po  nts  by  -^^^^  ^^  ^f^ 
conversations  with  both,  and  to  P^^  ^^/^^^  J°," 
them  for  the  independent    study  of  t^-«  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

f dend  Kypke,  afterwards  his  colleague  as  Professor  of 
O   il  Lite;ature,  remarked   that   ^t   that    -  ^^^ 
Iwed  httle  inclination  for  metaphysical  stud.        (   ) 
Kant  no  doubt  attended  many  lectures  of  which  no 

r    7.  made  •  but  we  know  that  he  heard  those  of 
mention  is  made  ,  Dut  we 

Professor  Schulz  on  dogmatics,  though  he  ma 
a  full  course  in  theology.     It  was  his  --  ^«  ^^^^^ 
«11  the  sciences  in  his  investigations,  and  he  regardea 
some  knowledge  of  theology  necessary  for  a  complete 
some  Knowieug  ^i^ktrv  was  not  chosen  as  a 

education,  ^^^^^^^^^ZZZs  fellow-student  at 
Te  "  sity,    t^^^^^^^^^     this  breadth  of  culture  was 
t    .TobS      « For  this  purpose,  Wlomer,    Kant, 
fnT  I   dSd  to  attend  the  public  lectures  of  Dr. 
Schu  ;  during  the  next  half  year.     We  did  not  m.ss  an 
hour    dUigently   wrote   the   dictations,  reviewed     he 
tctures  at  home,  and  in  the  examinations  which  the 
rX-n  frequently  held  with  his  numerous  hearers 
Tur  answers  were  so  satisfactory  that  -t  the    ^o-  « 
+1.P  rourse  he  requested  us  to  remain.     He  asked  tor 
our  names  inquired  about  our  knowledge  of  languages, 
^d  deSred  toVow  what  professors  we  -re  ^e-^^^^ 
and  what  was  the  aim  of  our  studies.     Ka.nt^n8wered 
that    he    intended   to   devote   himself   to    medicme, 


LECTUEES    OF    SCHULZ. 


47 


Wlomer,  that  he  had  chosen  the  law;  I  was  unde- 
cided." The  professor  then  asked  why  they  heard 
theological  lectures  ?  Kant  replied,  because  they  had 
a  desire  to  learn.  Dr.  Schulz  informed  them  that  if 
they  concluded  to  enter  the  ministry,  they  should  come 
to  him  with  confidence,  and  they  should  have  the  choice 
of  places  in  the  country  and  cities,  adding,  "  This  I 
promise  you;  and  if  I  live,  I  will  keep  my  word. 
Here  is  my  hand;  go  in  peace."  {^^) 

From  this  it  is  evident  that  Kant  had  not  yet  found 
the  sphere  of  his  future  activities.  He  may  have  had 
serious  intentions  of  studying  medicine.  Later  in  life 
he  manifested  a  preference  for  medical  works,  and  his 
first  book  was  dedicated  to  Bohlius,  a  medical  pro- 
fessor. In  the  undecided  state  of  his  mind  he  may 
sometimes  have  inclined  to  one  profession  and  then  to 
another. 

But  why  did  Kant  faif  to  comply  with  the  desire 
of  his  parents  to  enter  the  ministry  ?     His    lack    of 
sympathy  with  the  prevalent  rehgion  was  no  doubt 
one  of  his   strongest  reasons.      His  inquiring    mind 
could  hardly  escape  agitation  through  religious  doubts, 
which   Schulz's  lectures,  highly  as  Kant  appreciated 
them,  were  not  calculated  to  remove.     They  contained 
a  strange  mixture  of  Pietism  and  mathematical  demon- 
strations of  Christian  dogmas,   such  as  might  have 
been  expected  from  the  man  of  whom  Wolf  said  that 
if  any  one  understood  him,  it  was  Schulz  of  Konigsberg. 
Hippel,  who  was  one  of  Dr.  Schulz's  students,  gives  a 
hint    of   his    method  in    teaching    theology: — "This 
remarkable  man  taught  me  to  look  at  theology  from  a 
new  point  of  view ;  for  he   introduced  so   much  philo- 
sophy  into  it  that  one  would  have  thought  that  Christ 


48 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


and  His  apostles  had  all  received  instruction  from  Wolf 
in  Halle." 

It  was  an  age  of  theological  agitation,  of  religious 
inquiry  and  doubt ;  and  the   unsettling  of  faith  had  a 
strong  influence  on  the  young  men  in  the  universities. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that   Winckelmann,   Lessing, 
Ruhnken,  and  Kant,  were  all  sent  by  their  parents  to 
the  university  to  study  for  the  ministry,  and  that  not 
one  of  them  entered  that  profession.     There  was  much 
in  the  university  during  Kant's  student-life  which  was 
calculated  to  alienate  him  from  religion.     The  quarrels 
of  the  religious  factions  produced    distractions,  and 
made  an   unfavourable  impression    on   the    students. 
The  theological  faculty  was  the  most  powerful,  and 
exercised  an  authority  which  some  of  the  other  pro- 
fessors   regarded   as    oppressive.      Dr.    Schulz,    who 
became  the  most  influential  man  in  Konigsberg  soon 
after  his  arrival  in  the  city,  was  the  leading  spirit  in 
the  theological  department,  and  had  warm   adherents 
in  the  other  faculties ;  but  he  also  met  with   decided 
opposition,  and  his   supremacy  was   disputed  by  those 
who  rejected  his  religious  views.     When  Frederick  II. 
began  his  reign,  the  royal  favour  bestowed  on  Dr. 
Schulz  by  his  predecessor  was  withdrawn,   and  the 
king,  displeased  with  his  Pietistic  zeal,  deprived  him 
of  some  of  his  offices,  and  greatly  curtailed  his  power ; 
and  he  was  also   energetically  opposed  by  a  strong 
party  in  the  churches  of  Konigsberg.     This  change  in 
his   influence    occurred    about   the    time   when  Kant 
entered    the    university.      The    hot    disputes    in    the 
churches    embittered    the    feelings    of    the    different 
parties,  and  also  affected  both  the  professors  and  the 
students.     Professor  Fisher  had  been  banished  from 


^ 


^%« 


REASONS    FOR   NOT   ENTERING    THE    MINISTRY.  49 

Konigsberg  in  1725,  because  he  ventured  to  advocate 
Wolf's   philosophy,  and  to   defend  some   of  the  very 
tenets  for  which,  on  pain   of  death,  that  philosopher 
had  been  banished  from  Halle.     He  had  also  spoken 
in  uncomplimentary  terms  of  the  Pietism  in  Konigs- 
berg.      A  royal  decree  banished    him  from  the  city 
within    twenty-four    hours,    and    from    the    province 
within  forty-eight.      As  the  new  king    had  restored 
Wolf  to   Halle,  so  he  permitted  Fisher  to  return  to 
Konigsberg.      In    1743    he    published    a     book    on 
''Nature,"   in  which  he  advocated  deistic  and   pan- 
theistic views.      The  Pietists,  including  Dr.   Schulz, 
secured  the  prohibition  of  the  book ;  the  author  was 
severely  attacked,  and  was  not  permitted  to  partake  of 
the  communion.     The  sensation  thus  produced  could 
not  fail  to  affect  the  students,  so  easily  aroused  to 
indignation  even  by  the  semblance  of  intolerance.     It 
is    not    difficult    to    imagine    its    influence    on    Kant, 
absorbed  in  the  study  of  mathematics  and  physics  ;  and 
these  early  experiences  no  doubt  had  much  to  do  with 
his  later  hatred  of  all  forms  of  oppression,  and  particu- 
larly of  religious  intolerance.     If  aversion  to  Pietism 
already  began    in   the    gymnasium,   it  could  only  be 
increased   by   the  contentions  which  occurred  during 
his  studies    in  the  university.     Taking  into  account 
these  facts,  together  with  his  intellectual  preferences, 
we  need  look  no  farther  to  discover  his  reasons  for  not 
entering  the  ministry.  (^*) 

Kant's  quiet,  uneventful  life  was  marked  by  a  regular 
and  steady  development  of  his  powers,  without  abrupt 
inner  or  outer  changes.  Hungry  for  knowledge,  and 
absorbed  in  its  acquisition,  he  pursued  the  even  tenor 
of  his  way,  apparently  little  affected  by  distracting  or 

E 


50 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANCTEL   KANT. 


disturbing  influences.  The  conflicts  of  his  life  were 
mostly  inner  and  hidden  from  the  world.  Even  the 
processes  of  his  mind  in  producing  his  great  meta- 
physical speculations  are  very  imperfectly  known ;  with 
the  exception  of  his  works,  wo  have  hints  about  them 
only  in  his  letters.  We  know  nothing  of  his  mental 
conflicts  and  religious  struggles  in  youth ;  but  he  could 
not  pass  through  the  Pietistic  influences  without 
mental  agitation,  and  it  no  doubt  required  much  earnest 
thouefht  to  determine  his  vocation.  It  was  not  in  his 
nature  to  break  easily  with  the  rehgious  associations 
of  his  early  life,  and  it  must  have  cost  him  a  severe 
struggle  to  resolve  not  to  comply  with  the  ardent 
desires  of  his  parents  and  helpful  pastor. 

Kant  was  obliged  to  contend  with  poverty  while  at 
the  university,  and  he  found  the  road  to  learning  beset 
with  difficulties.  He,  however,  mastered  the  lectures, 
especially  those  of  Knutzen  and  Teske,  so  successfully 
that  he  could  aid  other  students  in  reviewing  them. 
Sometimes  he  rendered  this  assistance  as  a  matter  of 
friendship ;  but  his  necessities  also  compelled  him  to 
give  instruction  for  which  he  received  compensation, 
the  students  paying  him  what  they  pleased.  He  occu- 
pied a  room,  for  some  time,  with  Wlomer,  an  intimate 
friend,  probably  receiving  his  lodging  gratis.  Heils- 
berg  says,  "  Kallenberg,  now  councillor  of  war,  gave 
him  free  lodging  and  considerable  support  when 
Wlomer  went  to  Berlin.  From  the  deceased  Dr. 
Trummer,  whom  he  also  instructed,  he  received  much 
help,  but  more  from  his  relative,  the  manufacturer 
Richter,  who  paid  the  expenses  of  his  promotion  to  the 
degree  of  magister.'*  Kant  lived  very  economically,  an 
art  which  he  was  obliged  to  learn  early  and  to  practise 


POVERTY. 


61 


^ 


t 


(t 


long.  Although  he  did  not  absolutely  suffer  from  want, 
Heilsberg  informs  us  that  when  an  article  of  Kant's 
clothing  was  sent  away  to  be  mended  and  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  house,  "one  of  the  students  would 
remain  at  home  while  Kant  salHed  forth  with  the  coat, 
pantaloons,  or  boots  borrowed  from  him.  If  a  gar- 
ment was  entirely  worn  out,  the  party  "  (those  to  whom 
Kant  gave  lessons,  and  perhaps  other  friends)  "  made 
contributions,  of  which  no  account  was  kept,  and  which 
were  never  refunded." 

There  may  be  more  than  a  compensation  for  poverty 
in  the  very  discipHne  it  gives  a  man  while  mastering  the 
difficulties  he  encounters ;  and  it  may  prove  a  blessing 
to  many  a  mind  by  leaving  open  but  one  way  to  emi- 
nence— that  of  intellectual  supremacy, — though  that 
may  lie  through  deserts,  or  over  mountains  almost 
impassable.  There  are  victories  whose  greatest  bless- 
ing is  in  the  battle.  Kant's  necessities  proved  to  be 
blessings  in  disguise.  In  pursuing  his  purpose  reso- 
lutely, he  learned  self-denial,  mastered  circumstances, 
and  developed  remarkable  will-power  ;  and  his  poverty 
obliged  him  early  to  cultivate  the  gift  of  communi- 
cating instruction.  He  was  only  a  student  when  he 
became  a  teacher. 

He  shared  but  few  of  the  common  joys  of  life.  How- 
ever much  a  hostile  fortune  was  to  blame  for  this,  his 
tastes  seem  to  have  been  too  predominantly  intellectual 
to  seek  the  ordinary  pleasures  of  youth.  His  friend  Heils- 
berg says,  "Kant  was  fond  of  no  pleasures,  and  still 
less  was  he  inclined  towards  any  species  of  fanaticism ; 
and  he  imperceptibly  accustomed  those  who  heard  him 
to  similar  views.  His  only  recreation  consisted  in  play- 
ing billiards,   a  game  in  which  Wlomer  and  I  were 

E  2 


'-■*^S]W^>^  •*V*«««l^^^-■ 


52 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMxVNUEL    KANT. 


h       1 

I'  i 


I. 


his  constant  companions.  We  had  developed  our  skill 
almost  to  the  utmost,  and  rarely  returned  home  without 
some  gain.  I  paid  my  French  teacher  altogether  from 
this  income.  As  a  consequence,  persons  refused  to 
play  with  us,  and  we  abandoned  this  way  of  making 
money,  and  chose  Thombre,  which  Kant  played  well." 
Study  was  the  main  source  of  liis  enjoyments,  and  when 
afterwards  he  advised  young  men  to  cultivate  a  love 
for  work,  and  to  deny  themselves  pleasures  so  that  they 
might  the  longer  retain  the  power  of  enjoyment,  he 
gave  them  a  rule  which  he  himself  had  adopted. 

Kant  probably  ended  his  university  course  in  1744, 
at  the  age  of  twenty.  In  this  year  he  began  the  pre- 
paration of  his  first  book.  In  harmony  with  his  pre- 
ferences and  principal  studies  at  the  university,  the 
book  is  mathematical,  treating  of  the  kinetic  forces.  (^^) 
The  title-page  bears  the  date  1746;  but  the  dedi- 
cation was  written  on  his  birthday,  April  22,  1747, 
and  in  the  book  itself  there  is  a  reference  to  a  work 
which  appeared  in  the  spring  of  1747,  so  that  the 
publication  may  have  been  delayed  till  the  autumn  of 
that  year  or  still  later.  As  he  was  too  poor  to  pay 
for  the  printing,  he  was  aided  by  his  uncle  Richter. 
The  book  has  only  historic  interest,  which  consists  in 
the  fact  that  it  q^ives  us  a  knowledge  of  the  mind  and 
views  of  young  Kant;  but  in  this  respect  it  is  in- 
valuable. It  is  characteristic  that  at  the  age  of  twenty 
he  chose  a  subject  so  abstract  and  necessarily  involving 
much  dry  discussion.  The  book  throws  light  on  his 
university  course,  showing  what  studies  chiefly  occu- 
pied his  attention,  and  it  also  reveals  the  tendency  to 
abstract  reasoning  which  is  so  marked  in  his  meta- 
physical works. 


HIS    FIRST    BOOK. 


53 


The  standpoint  of  the  book  is  essentially  that  of  his 
teacher,  Knutzen.  {^^)     In  the  Wolfian  philosophy,  of 
which  the   teacher  was  a  disciple,  a   pure  mechanism 
prevailed,    and  a   dogmatism   that    was    defended  by 
mathematical  demonstrations,  which  it  applied  to  every 
subject.     Both  in  the  natural  sciences  and  in  meta- 
physics this    method  promoted  a  lifeless   formalism. 
Kant  is  not  wholly  satisfied  with  this  method,  and  he 
subjects  it  to  criticism ;  but  he  does  not  transcend  it, 
and  has  no  other  to  put  in  its  place.     The  author  is 
bold  and  self-confident,  and  yet  modest ;  he  is  critical, 
and  at  the  same  time  positive  ;  and  he  reveals  a  fear- 
less, energetic  mind  and  a  resolute  will.     "  If  I  venture 
to  reject  the  thoughts  of  Leibnitz,  Wolf,   Herrmann, 
Bernoulh,  Buelfinger,  and  others,  and  to  give  my  own 
the  preference,  I  would  not  like  to  have  worse  judges 
than   these   men ;  for  I  know  that  if  their  judgment 
rejected  my  opinions,  it  would  not  condemn  my  aim." 
There  is  much  in  the  book  which  in  a  youth  just  out  of 
his   teens  may  savour   of  impertinence,    and    of  this 
Kant  is  aware.     "  My  freedom  in  contradicting  eirii- 
nent  men  will  produce  unfavourable  results  for  me. 
The  world  is  much  inclined  to  believe  that  he  who  is 
better  informed  on  some  points  than   a  great  scholar, 
imagines  himself  superior  to  him.     I  venture  to  say  that 
this  is  a  mistake."     Connected  with  this  freedom,  which 
characterizes  the  independent  thinker,    there   is   also 
respect  for  great  men  and  their  opinions ;  but  it  is  not 
a  reverence  which   makes  their  authority  final.     We 
have  here  a  mind  striving  to  emancipate  itself  from 
the  bondage  of  authority  while  respecting  those  who 
imposed  it ;  hence  there  is  a  mingling  of  the  defiant 
tone  with    modesty,  and  the  wrestling  of  a   critical 


tmmmfifmKm-'trm  ,.^~ 


II 


i;ti 


H'i 


54 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


spirit  with  the  system  in  which  it  is  entangled.     He 
is  convinced  that  the  time  is  past  when   the  opinions 
of  great   men    can  be  regarded  as  settling  disputed 
questions.     "  One  can  now  boldly  hold  as  nothing  the 
authority  of  the  Newtons  and  Leibnitzes  if  it  conflicts 
with  the  discovery  of   the  truth,  and  can    fearlessly 
resolve  to  yield  to  no  persuasion  but  that  of  the  under- 
standing."    And  in  a  characteristic  passage  he  says, 
"  In  the  pursuit  of  this  discussion  I  shall  not  hesitate 
to  reject  freely  the  proposition  of  any  man,  however 
celebrated  he  may  be,  if  to  my  understanding  it  appears 
to  be  false."     As  he  is  well  aware  that  a  pigmy  in  learn- 
ing may  in  some  department  surpass  a  scholar  who 
excels  him  in  every  other,  he  of  course  does  not  claim 
to  be  superior  to  the  eminent  men  whom  he  criticizes. 
He   admits  that  there   is  presumption  in  the  decla- 
ration, ''  The  truth  for  which  the  greatest  masters  of 
human  knowledge  have   striven  in  vain,  first    of   all 
presented   itself  to  my  mind  ;  '*  but  he  significantly 
adds,  "  I  do  not  venture  to  justify  this  thought ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  I  would  not  like  to  disclaim  it."     He 
thinks   it  important  that  a  man   should  have  a  noble 
confidence  in  his  powers,  since  it  inspires  the  mind 
and  gives   it  a  degree  of  exaltation  which  is  advan- 
tageous in  the  investigation  of  the  truth. 

The  author  is  convinced  that  by  means  of  this  book 
he  has  done  science  considerable  service,  and  thinks 
that  his  views  will  help  to  settle  one  of  the  greatest 
controversies  at  that  time  dividing  the  geometers  of 
Europe ;  and  he  ventures  to  predict  that  the  contro- 
versy will  either  be  settled  soon,  or  that  it  will  never 
end.  But  aside  from  its  spirit  there  is  nothing  espe- 
cially   striking   in  the   book,  and   there   are  no  new 


1 


FAMILY    TUTOR. 


65 


theories  which  claim  attention.  It  received  little 
notice  when  it  appeared,  created  no  reputation  for  its 
author,  and  is  not  now  prized  by  mathematicians. 
Greatly  as  he  was  indebted  to  his  teachers  Knutzen 
and  Teske,  the  work  must  have  cost  him  much  re- 
search and  earnest  thought,  and  it  proves  that  at  the 
university  he  laid  a  solid  foundation  for  his  eminent 
career.  We  look  in  vain  for  the  profundity  and  the 
peculiar  views  of  the  *'  Kritik,"  which  appeared  thirty- 
four  years  later;  but  the  independent  and  critical 
spirit  of  his  first  book  is  the  germ  from  which  the 
"  Kritik  "  could  grow. 

There  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  at  this  time 
Kant  had  already  chosen  the  sphere  of  his  activity, 
and  that  he  was  intent  on  fitting  himself  for  it.  With 
a  resoluteness  peculiar  to  him,  he  says  in  this  book, 
"  I  have  marked  out  for  myself  the  course  which  I 
have  determined  to  take.  I  shall  begin  my  career,  and 
nothing  shall  keep  me  from  continuing  it."  He  chose 
the  learned  career  of  a  teacher  in  the  university,  though 
years  of  toil  were  still  necessary  before  he  could  enter 
that  sphere. 

His  father  died  in  1746,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
became  a  family  tutor.  It  may  be  that  his  father's 
death  threw  him  more  completely  on  his  own  resources, 
and  made  it  necessary  for  him  to  support  himself.  In 
order  to  become  a  teacher  in  the  university,  he  was 
obliged  to  take  a  degree  and  to  habilitate,  and  this 
required  money ;  he  may  also  have  found  it  advisable 
to  prepare  himself  more  thoroughly  for  the  degree 
and  for  the  delivery  of  lectures.  It  was  common  for 
young  men  after  completing  their  course,  whether 
they  were  candidates  for  the  ministry,  or  aimed  at  the 


jnUp^-t^a^j^s"*"-?*  -■*•»  ■-  ■— ^  • 


r 


lit 


50 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


position  of  a  teacher  in  the  university,  to  become 
family  tutors ;  frequently  this  was  the  only  available 
means  of  support.  The  position  was  far  from  being 
an  enviable  one.  The  pay  of  such  a  tutor  was 
small,  and  frequently  he  was  regarded  as  scarcely 
more  than  a  servant,  received  but  little  respect  from 
the  children,  and  was  expected  to  attend  to  other 
matters  besides  teaching. (^^)  Kant,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  unusually  favoured  while  family  tutor ;  still, 
the  nine  years  which  he  spent  in  this  position  could 
not  have  been  otherwise  than  irksome.  He  had  no 
taste  for  teaching  the  mere  rudiments  of  knowledge, 
and  his  own  confession  indicates  that  the  occupation 
was  not  congenial.  Speaking  humorously  of  the 
matter,  he  declared  that  there  probably  never  was  a 
worse  tutor,  and  said  that  he  had  never  been  able  to 
acquire  the  art  of  adapting  himself  to  the  capacities 
and  views  of  children. 

Kant  was  at  first  tutor  in  the  family  of  a  Reformed 
preacher  near  Konigsberg ;  then  in  the  family  of  Von 
Hiillesen,  at  Arnsdorf,  about  sixty  miles  south-west 
of  Konigsberg.  This  was  the  limit  of  his  travels. 
He  visited  Pillau,  about  thirty  miles  distant,  and 
other  places  in  the  vicinity;  but  Arnsdorf  is  the 
greatest  distance  he  ever  journeyed  from  his  native 
city.  His  friendly  relations  with  the  family  of  Von 
Hiillesen  were  continued  after  he  ceased  to  be  tutor, 
and  his  work  there  cannot  have  been  a  failure.  The 
letters  of  his  pupils  proved  their  warm  regard  for  their 
teacher,  and  after  he  left  the  house  he  was  invited  to 
participate  in  the  most  interesting  festivities  of  the 
family.  One  of  the  young  men  was  afterwards  placed 
in    his    charge     at    Konigsberg    while    pursuing   his 


i 


I 


COUNTESS    KAVSERLTNG. 


57 


studies  at  the  university.  His  pupils  in  this  family 
were  among  the  first  in  Prussia  to  free  their  peasants 
from  the  subjection  in  which  they  were  at  that  time 
held;  and  for  this  act  the  king  conferred  on  them  the 
title  of  count. 

The  third  and  last  family  in  which  he  lived  as  tutor 
was  that  of  Count  Kayserling,  whose  residence  was 
near  Konigsberg,  and  who  lived  much  of  the  time  in 
the  city.  This  position  was  of  great  advantage  to 
him,  and  had  much  influence  on  his  social  relations. 
The  count,  who  had  studied  at  Leipzig,  Halle,  and  in 
other  universities,  was  a  man  of  admirable  qualities  of 
mind  and  heart,  and  had  gained  a  reputation  in  diplo- 
matic service  in  various  countries.  The  countess 
was  a  woman  of  unusual  talent,  with  superior  culture 
and  attractive  manners.  She  aided  her  husband  in 
literary  Avork,  and  also  translated  a  Compend  of  Philo- 
sophy into  French.  Her  rare  talent  in  painting  pro- 
cured for  her  the  distinction  of  an  election  to  honorary 
membership  in  the  Berlin  Academy  of  the  Arts  and 
Mechanical  Sciences.  In  one  of  his  books  Kant  calls 
her  '*  the  ornament  of  her  sex."  It  was  in  this 
family  that  he  became  acquainted  with  the  rules  of 
refined  society.  Here  he  met  many  persons  of 
rank  and  distinction ;  and  owing  to  his  superior 
mental  powers  and  his  scholarship,  he  soon  became  a 
favourite  guest  in  the  most  cultivated  families  of 
Konigsberg.  At  table,  French,  Italian,  and  English 
literature,  as  well  as  political  affairs,  were  discussed ; 
this  stimulated  him  to  master  these  subjects  thoroughly, 
and  gave  him  an  opportunity  to  use  his  excellent  con- 
versational powers.  His  experience  in  this  family  was 
of  great  value ;  here  he  gained  an  ease,   culture,  and 


1^1 


58 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


polisli,  which  could  hardly  hav(3  been  expected  in  a 
man  with    his   early   associations    and   his    studious 

habits. 

If  we  judge  Kant's  tutorship,  not  by  his  estimate, 
but  by  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by  the  two 
noble  families  in  which  he  lived,  we  must  conclude 
that  it  was  eminently  successful.  It  cost  him  an 
effort  to  adapt  himself  to  those  under  his  charge ;  but 
this  had  its  value  in  preparing  him  for  his  future 
career.  "  This  long  residence  in  strange  families,  the 
various  social  relations  he  entered,  and  to  which  he 
soon  adapted  himself  admirably ;  the  necessary  victory 
over  his  bashfulness  ;  the  fact  that  he  was  thrown  on 
his  own  intellectual  resources;  the  many  demands 
made  on  him  by  his  duties  as  tutor,  and  the  conscien- 
tiousness with  which  he  strove  to  perform  them ;  all 
this  was  calculated  to  exert  an  extraordinary  influence 
on  his  life,  especially  in  developing  the  marvellous 
versatility  of  his  mind."  {'')  The  union  of  scholarship 
and  refinement  in  Kant  is  notic(3d  by  the  same  writer  : 
"  We  now  recognize  in  him  the  thorough  scholar  and 
the  cultivated  man  of  the  world,  without  any  inter- 
ference of  the  qualities  of  the  one  with  those  of  the 

other." 

These  nine  years  of  tutorship  also  aff*orded  him 
opportunities  for  the  pursuit  of  his  favourite  subjects. 
His  first  book,  which  appeared  soon  after  he  became 
family  tutor,  was  probably  finished  while  occupying 
this  position.  The  time  which  was  his  own  he 
devoted  chiefly  to  mathematics  and  physics,  astronomy 
perhaps  receiving  most  attention.  In  1754  he  pub- 
hshed  a  brief  discussion  of  the  question,  "  Has  the 
Earth  been  subject  to  any  Change  in  its  Revolution 


nilili 


■••fes-.. 


\ 


COSMOGONY. 


59 


on  its  Axis  ?  "  In  the  same  year  he  briefly  considered 
the  question,  ''Is  the  Earth  growing  Old?"  But 
the  work  to  which  he  devoted  most  of  his  energies, 
and  which  is  the  most  important  of  all  his  earlier 
publications,  is  the  astronomo-geological  book  which 
appeared  in  1755,  with  the  title,  ''General  Natural 
History  and  Theory  of  the  Heavens  ;  or  an  Essay  on 
the  Constitution  and  Mechanical  Origin  of  the  Whole 
Universe,  discussed  according  to  Newtonian  Prin- 
ciples." n 

The  great  astronomers  had  given  the  laws  of  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  Kant  goes  farther  back 
and  attempts  to  account  for  the  very  origin  of  these 
bodies,  and  his  book  is  really  a  cosmogony  of  the  uni- 
Supposing  matter  to  have  been  originally  in  a 


verse. 


state  of  chaos,  he  proceeds  to  give  a  purely  mechanical 
explanation  of  the  formation  of  the  celestial  bodies 
according  to  Newton's  laws  of  attraction  and  repulsion. 
He  regards  matter,  created  by  God,  as  originally 
hovering  in  a  nebulous  state.  First  the  sun  is  formed 
by  the  attraction  of  particles  of  matter ;  then  the  chaotic 
matter  which  still  hovers  around  the  sun  is  formed  into 
the  planets  and  their  moons.  Kant  was  the  first  to 
propose  this  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  universe,  but  a 
few  years  later,  Lambert,  without  knowing  anything 
of  Kant's  book,  advocated  the  same  theory  in  his 
"  Cosmological  Letters;"  and  later  still,  Laplace,  in 
his  "  Exposition  du  Systeme  du  Monde,"  proposed  and 
more  firmly  established  the  same  theory,  without 
knowing  anything  of  the  books  of  his  predecessors. 
In  Germany  it  is  still  called  the  Kant-Laplace  theory. 
While  Kant  adopts  the  great  laws  discovered  by 
Newton,  and  applies  them  in  explaining  the  construction 


'H 


60 


THE    LIFE   OP   IMMANCKL   EANT. 


.'I 
I'  i 


f 


m 


Iti 


of  the  universe,  he  criticizes  and  transcends  some  of 
the  principles  of  the  great  English  philosopher. 
Newton  accounts  for  the  order  in  the  world  by  the 
direct  interposition  of  God  ;  but  Kant  thinks  that  it 
can  be  accounted  for  by  the  laws  of  matter.  These 
laws  were  placed  there  by  God,  but  they  work  without 
the  necessity  of  divine  interposition.  God  is  still 
regarded  as  the  author  of  all  things ;  His  activity  is, 
however,  put  farther  back.  Law,  not  chance,  rules 
the  universe,  and  this  makes  it  so  harmonious  in  its 
organization  and  movement ;  and  God  has  so  consti- 
tuted this  law  that  it  works  without  His  interposition. 
This  hypothesis  of  the  origin  of  the  world  is  not 
the  only  significant  feature  of  the  book.  Near  the 
beginning  he  expresses  the  conviction  that  there  may 
be  planets  beyond  Saturn,  and  also  a  planet  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter.  When,  twenty-six  years  later, 
Herschel  discovered  Uranus,  Kant  rejoiced  at  the 
confirmation  of  his  prophetic  view.  It  is,  however, 
strange  that  Kant's  suspicion  that  there  are  planets 
beyond  Saturn,  which  is  often  praised  as  revealing  a 
deep  insight  into  the  planetary  system,  rests  on  an 
hypothesis  which  was  proved  false  by  the  discovery  of 
those  planets.  It  is  Kant's  theory  that  the  eccentricity 
of  the  orbits  of  the  planets  increases  with  their  distance 
from  the  sun,  the  exception  to  this  rule  in  the  case  of 
Mercury  and  Mars  being  regarded  by  him  as  due  to 
disturbinginfluences;  consequently,  the  further  a  planet 
is  removed  from  the  centre  of  the  system,  the  more 
will  its  orbit  resemble  that  of  a  comet.  He  therefore 
regards  it  probable  that  there  are  planets  beyond 
Saturn  whose  orbits  are  still  more  eccentric  than  that 
of  Saturn,  and,  consequently,  still  more  closely  related 


i4«Milliii|flliMMIiSi 


Vv 


V 


ii 


CHARACTER   OF   THE    BOOK. 


61 


to  those  of  comets,  so  that,  by  a  regular  gradation, 
the  planets  at  last  become  comets.  When,  however, 
Uranus  and  Neptune  were  discovered,  it  was  found 
that  their  orbits  were  less  eccentric  than  that  of  Saturn, 

While  the  book  discusses  the  mechanical  forces, 
Kant  does  not  regard  them  as  capable  of  explaining 
organisms  ;  they  are,  however,  much  better  understood 
than  the  organic  powers.  He  thinks  that,  in  a  certain 
sense,  it  may  be  said  without  presumption,  *'  Give  me 
matter,  and  I  will  construct  a  world !  That  is,  give 
me  matter,  and  I  will  show  you  how  a  world  may 
originate  therefrom ;  for  if  the  matter  exists,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  discover  the  causes  which  have  co-operated 
in  the  formation  of  the  world."  But  insuperable  diffi- 
culties appear  when  we  begin  to  deal  with  organisms. 
"  Can  we  boast  of  the  same  ability  with  respect  to  the 
least  plant  or  insect  ?  Can  we  say,  Give  me  matter, 
and  I  will  show  you  how  a  caterpillar  can  be  produced?" 

Among  other  things,  the  book  also  discusses  the 
density  of  the  different  planets,  the  origin  of  the 
comets,  the  revolutions  of  the  planets  on  their  axes,  the 
origin  of  Saturn's  rings,  the  zodiacal  light,  and  the 
history  of  the  sun.  Kant  thinks  it  very  probable  that 
most  of  the  planets  are  inhabited ;  and  he  holds  that 
in  proportion  as  a  planet  is  distant  from  the  sun,  its 
inhabitants,  animals,  and  plants,  will  be  formed  of 
lighter  material,  and  their  form  and  structure  will  be 
more  perfect.  He  ascribes  vice,  error,  and  the  inert- 
ness of  thought  to  the  coarseness  of  the  material  from 
which  the  body  is  formed ;  man  must  therefore  be 
more  perfect  if  the  material  of  his  physical  nature  is 
finer.  He  consequently  reasons  that  in  proportion  as 
human  beings  are  removed  from  the  sun,  their  bodies 


IMi 


r 


'  5 


.1 


I 


62 


THE   LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


il 


will  be  fine,  and  the  power  of  thought,  the  quickness 
of  the  intellect,  the  clearness  and  vividness  of  their 
impressions  from  external  objects,  their  skill  in 
executing  their  purposes,  and  the  whole  range  of  their 
endowments,  will  be  perfect.  This  seems  to  him  so 
probable  that  he  regards  it  as  almost  certain.  The 
highest  intelligences  would  therefore  be  found  on 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  and  the  lowest  on  Venus  and 
Mercury  ;  on  the  former,  a  Newton  would  be  regarded 
as  an  ape,  and  on  the  latter,  a  Greenlander  or  a 
Hottentot  would  be  esteemed  a  Newton.  In  speaking 
of  the  blessings  of  the  most  fortunate  inhabitants,  he 
gives  a  loose  rein  to  his  speculations,  and  this  part  of 
the  work  abounds  in  what  may  be  called  illustrations 
of  a  speculative  imagination. 

The  style  of  the  book  is  easy,  and  between  the 
arguments  beautiful  passages  are  interspersed.  Those 
who  are  familiar  only  with  his  dry  speculations  are  not 
prepared  for  the  perspicuity  and  beauty  of  style  in  his 
earlier  works.  He  calls  worlds  and  systems  "  mere 
sun-dust,"  as  compared  with  the  whole  of  creation; 
and  among  others  this  poetic  passage  occurs,  "  A  view 
of  the  starry  heavens  on  a  brilliant  night  inspires  noble 
souls  with  ecstatic  delight.  Amid  the  universal  still- 
ness of  nature  and  the  peace  of  the  spirit,  the  mysterious 
activity  of  the  soul  utters  an  indescribable  language, 
which  thrills,  but  which  human  tongue  cannot 
express." 

Kant  had  consecrated  his  life  to  thought,  and  the 
tinl^  speiit  by  so  many  in  idleness  or  dissipation  was 
devoted  by  him  to  severe  mental  toil.  The  following 
words  were  evidently  written  from  the  fulness  of  his 
heart :  "  The  discernment  of  the  understanding,  when 


t 


/ 


1 


FATE    OF    THE    BOOK. 


63 


it  possesses  the  proper  degree  of  completeness  and 
clearness,  has  far  more  lively  charms  than  sensuous 
allurements  have,  and  is  able  to  conquer  these  com- 
pletely and  trample  them  under  foot." 

In  judging  of  the  merits  of  the  book,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  its  author  was  only  thirty-one  when 
it  was  published,  and  that  he  had  never  been  connected 
with  a  university  except  as  a  student.  It  was  chiefly 
the  product  of  his  diligent  study  as  family  tutor.  The 
work  was  dedicated  to  Frederick  II.,  who,  however, 
probably  never  saw  a  copy  of  it.  The  publisher 
failed  while  the  book  was  in  the  press,  his  entire  stock 
was  seized  by  the  court  for  the  creditors,  and  in  this 
way  the  circulation  of  the  book  was  hindered.  When 
Lambert  published  his  "  Cosmological  Letters  "  they 
excited  much  attention,  while  Kant's  book  was 
scarcely  known. 


1^ 


2*'»C;;  '"'«!9(si<uft*.«i''«"<iiipBpi . ._. 


i 


6J. 


TUE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


CHAPTER  III. 

TEACHER   IN   THE    UNIVERSITY. 

Habilitation — Privat-Docent — Subjects  and  character  of  his  lectures 
— Aim  in  teaching— Popularity — Testimony  of  Herder — Dis- 
traction— First  salary — Contest  for  a  prize — Promotion  to  a 
professorship— Efforts  to  induce  him  to  leave  Konigsberg — 
Condition  of  the  University — Dean  and  Rector. 

Most  of  tlie  instructors  in  German  universities  are 
included  under  the  classification  of  tutors,  professors 
extraordinary,  and  professors  in  ordinary.  (^°)  A  tutor 
may  become  a  professor  in  ordinary  without  passing 
through  the  intermediate  grade  of  professor  extra- 
ordinary ;  but  it  is  unusual  to  appoint  any  one  a 
professor  who  has  not  been  a  tutor.  Kant  desired  to 
become  a  tutor  in  the  philosophical  faculty,  and  for 
this  purpose  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  present  to  the 
dean  of  that  faculty  two  Latin  dissertations.  These 
he  was  obhged  to  defend  before  the  dean  and  profes- 
sors against  any  one  who  might  see  fit  to  attack  them. 
Persons  were  also  appointed  to  dispute  with  the 
author,  the  whole  proceeding  being  conducted  in  Latin. 
Kant's  first  dissertation  was  presented  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  the  degree  of  magister.  It  was  a  treatise 
on  "  Fire,"  (^*)  and  was  defended  before  the  faculty  on 
the  12th  of  July,   1755.     Teske,  his  former  teacher. 


t|r 


^ 


/> 


DISSERTATIONS. 


65 


was  much  pleased  with  it,  and  declared  that  it  had 
been  instructive  to  him.     To  secure  the  privilege  of 
lecturing  in  the  university,  he  presented  and  defended 
another  dissertation,   on  the  27th  of  September,  en- 
titled, ''  A  new  Explanation  of  the  First  Principles  of 
Metaphysical    Knowledge ;"  (^^)    which    was   the    first 
metaphysical  discussion  from  his  pen.     According  to 
a  royal  decree  of  1749,  no  person  was  to  be  proposed 
for  the  position   of  professor  extraordinary  who  had 
not  presented  and  defended  three  Latin  dissertations. 
To  prepare  the  way  for  a  professorship,  Kant  accord- 
ingly prepared  a  third  treatise,  "  On  the  Advantages 
to  Natural  Thilosophy  of  a  Metaphysic  connected  with 
Geometry,"  (^^)  which  he  defended  in  April,  1756. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  these  dissertations  there 
is  a  discussion  of  mathematical,  physical,  and  meta- 
physical principles,  and  that  they  belong  to  the 
departments  of  which  he  made  a  speciality  while  a 
student  and  also  afterwards.  But  it  is  evident  that  at 
this  time  his  strength  still  lay  in  mathematics  and 
physics.  His  books  and  treatises  show  that  he  was 
thoroughly  prepared  for  his  new  sphere.  He  had 
mastered  the  results  of  the  researches  of  Newton, 
Leibnitz,  Hales,  Boerhave,  and  others ;  and  the  com- 
prehensiveness of  his  knowledge  is  as  surprising  as 
his  penetration,  his  bold  speculation,  and  his  ability 
to  systematize  the  results  of  his  investigations.  He, 
however,  never  made  experiments  in  physics. 

Any  one  who  has  a  good  character  and  the  requisite 
scholarship,  can  become  a  tutor  in  a  German  university 
by  complying  with  the  conditions  of  habilitation ;  but 
after  the  laborious  preparation  necessary,  and  after 
passing  through  this    severe   ordeal,    he  has  nothing 

F 


% 


■^ 


»-afcMg»";«wtw*a#8g«www^j 


\ 


66 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KA^'T. 


but  the  privilege  of  delivering  lectures.     He  is  thrown 
entirely  on  his  own  resources,  and  on  the  assistance 
of  friends  ;  from  the  university  he  receives  no  remunera- 
tion.    Only  a  professor  in  ordinary  is  eligible  to  the 
position  of  rector,  dean,  or  member  of  the  academic 
senate ;  in  the  management  of  the  university  the  tutor 
is  not  consulted.     For  his  income  he  depends  on  the 
fees  of  the  students  who  hear  his  private  lectures,  the 
public  ones   always  being   free;    and  necessity  may 
compel  him  to  give  private  lessons,  or  to  resort  to  other 
means  for  a  livelihood.     No  student  is  obliged  to  hear 
his  lectures  ;  and  while  the  exalted  position  of  a  pro- 
fessor is  likely  to  attract  students,  that  of  a  tutor  is 
too  humble  to  be  attractive.     He  is,  in  fact,  simply  a 
private  teacher,  with  the  privilege  of  lecturing  if  he 
can    get   an   audience.     Until    the   year   when    Kant 
became  professor,  neither  his  name  nor  that  of  any 
other  tutor  appeared  in  the  catalogue,  so  that  even  the 
subjects  on  which  he  lectured  were  not  published  by 
the  authority  of  the  institution.     But  the  first  year 
of  Kant's  professorship  was  also  the  first  in  which 
the  catalogue  contained  the  names  of  the  tutors,  and 
the  subjects  of  their  lectures,  thus  giving  them  pubhc 
and  official  recognition.  (^^) 

Among  the  uncertainties  of  a  tutorship  is  the  pro- 
motion to  a  professorship.  It  may  be  a  long  time 
before  a  vacancy  occurs ;  in  case  of  a  vacancy,  other 
tutors  may  be  preferred  to  him,  or  may  have  stronger 
claims  because  they  have  waited  longer;  and  thus 
years  and  life  itself  may  be  spent,  without  attaining 
the  coveted  goal.  The  history  of  German  universities 
furnishes  examples  of  fine  scholars  who  have  worn 
out  their  lives  in  toil,  with  but  dim  hopes  of  promo- 


1 


riEST   LECTURE. 


67 


tion.     But  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  position 
are   a    spur  to   effort   and   they   arouse  the  mind  to 
the   utmost   exertion  ;    and  it  is  not  surprising  that 
among  those  who  overcome  these  obstacles,  so  many 
stand  in  the  front  rank  of  deep  and  broad  scholarship. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  create  a  sphere  more  desirable 
or  more  advantageous  for  the  intellectual  man  than  the 
position  of  a  teacher  in  a  German  university ;  and  well 
is  his  course  called  pre-eminently  "  the  learned  career." 
The  vocation    which   Kant  chose   was    the    one  to 
which  he  was  best  adapted  by  his  tastes,  his  habits, 
and    his  scholarship ;  but  on  account  of  his  poverty 
his     position    was     peculiarly    trying.       Considerable 
expense  was   connected  with  his  promotion,    such  as 
the  payment  of  fees,  and  the  printing  of  the  disserta- 
tions ;    in   meeting   this    he  was    aided   by  his    uncle 
Richter.     The  ordinary  difficulties  of  the  position  were 
increased    soon  after  he  became  tutor,  by  the   Seven 
Years'  War,  by  means  of   which   Konigsberg,  being 
near  the  Russian  border,  suffered  greatly. 

Kant's  books  were  no  doubt  known  at  the  university>, 
He  had  aroused  expectation,  and  when  his  treatises 
were  presented,  he  was  honoured  by  unusually  large 
audiences.  In  the  autumn  of  1755  he  began  his  first 
course  of  lectures,  delivering  them  in  a  large  hall  in  the 
house  where  he  lodged.  Borowski,  who  was  present  at 
the  first  lecture,  says  that  this  hall,  "  together  with  the 
vestibule  and  steps,  was  filled  with  an  unusual  number 
of  students.  This  seemed  to  embarrass  Kant  exceed- 
ingly. Being  unaccustomed  to  the  affair,  he  almost 
lost  his  composure,  spoke  less  audibly  than  usual,  and 
frequently  repeated  himself.  But  this  only  served  to 
increase    our    admiration   for   the  man   who,    in    our 

F  2 


:i^ggj| 


ag^^HMi 


-asamtrngmmmmmm^- 


68 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANCEL  KANT 


opinion,  had  the  most  extensive  knowledge,  and  who 
impressed  us  as  not  fearful,  but  only  very  modest.     In 
the  next  hour  everything  was  different.     Then  and 
afterwards  his  lectures  were  not  only  thorough,  but 
also  easy  and  agreeable."     The  same  writer  mforms 
us  that  there  was  so  exalted  an  opinion  of  his  attam- 
ments,  that  he  was  thought  capable  of  teaching  any- 
thing belonging  to  the  philosophical  faculty.     For  his 
first'' courses  of  lectures  he,  however,  chose  subjects 
to  which  he  had  thus  far  specially  devoted  himself. 
During    that    winter    he    lectured    on    mathematics 
and  physics.     At  that  time  compends  were  generally 
used  as  the   basis   of  the   lectures ;  and  he  chose   a 
compend  by  Wolf   for   his  lectures  on   mathematics, 
and  one  by  Eberhard  for  those  on  physics. 

To  the  two  courses  of  the  first  winter  he  soon  added 
lectures  on  logic  and  metaphysics,  using  for  the  former 
a  compend  of  Meyer,  for  the  latter  that  of  Baumeister 
and  afterwards  that  of  Baumgarten.     Soon  he  lectured 
regularly  three  or  four  times  a  day.     He  was  not  con- 
tent with  giving  theoretical  knowledge,   but  wanted 
also  to  give  it  a  practical  application ;  accordingly,  he 
prepared  lectures  on   fortification,   applying   to   this 
subject   his    knowledge   of    mathematics.     From   the 
very  beginning  of  his  connexion  with  the  university 
he  aimed  to  connect  the  practical  with  the  theoretical, 
a  tendency  which  characterized  his  whole  life  after- 
wards, but  which  is  largely  ignored,  because  his  emi- 
nence  in  speculation  has  obscured  his  practical  efforts. 
The  lectures  on  fortification  were  intended  for  military 
men,  and  by  means  of  them  he  extended  his  influence 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  university.     The  numerous 
military  officers  in  the  city  made  such  a  course  im- 


J 


SUBJECTS    OF    LECTURES. 


69 


portant,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  discussed  the  subject 
in  compHance  with  their  request. 

While  we  should  hardly  expect  from  Kant  anything 
pertaining  to  war,  still  less  should  we  look  to  him  for 
a  discussion  of  subjects  referring  chiefly  to  amuse- 
ment. We  regard  fireworks  as  playthings,  whose 
discussion  hardly  lies  within  the  sphere  of  a  philo- 
sopher's serious  investigations.  Yet  Kant  delivered 
lectures  on  pyrotechnics.  His  interests  were,  in  fact, 
far  more  general  than  is  usually  supposed,  and  in  his 
earlier  years,  especially,  he  was  greatly  influenced  by 
his  surroundings,  and  popular  subjects  frequently 
engaged  his  attention.  The  age  itself  helps  us  to 
understand  these  lectures.  "  It  must  be  remembered 
that  during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
pyrotechnics  were  valued  very  highly,  that  unusual 
sums  of  money  were  spent  for  them,  and  that  authors 
and  artists  did  not  think  it  beneath  them  to  prepare 
folios,  with  expensive  plates,  for  the  explanation  and 
exaltation  of  things  which  cannot  possibly  be  described. 
Kant  aimed  to  infuse  life  into  the  dead,  mechanical 
knowledge,  and  to  connect  it  with  science  ;  he,  however, 
abandoned  such  pursuits  when  the  more  earnest  spirit 
of  the  century  consigned  the  idle  sport  to  its  proper 
place."  {'') 

Belonging  to  tlie  philosophical  faculty,  to  which  are 
assigned  all  departments  of  learning  not  peculiar  to 
theology,  law,  and  medicine,  he  had  a  wide  range  of 
topics  from  which  to  choose.  As  tutor  he  was  not 
obliged  to  lecture  on  any  particular  subject,  but  was 
entirely  free  in  his  choice.  His  previous  preparation 
and  preferences  were  by  no  means  the  only  considera- 
tions in  the  choice  of  subjects,  and  at  times  they  may 


.;»^(*«siBar**** 


•Aii^-auKaiaWM 


Ki  •tmsitmimmmm 


70 


THE    LIFE   OF    IMMANOEL   KANT. 


have  been  overbalanced  by  others,  for  he  was  depen- 
dent on  his  lectures  for  his  Hving,  and  his  income  from 
them  depended  upon  their  popularity ;  he  also  had  a 
reputation  to  make  as  well  as  to  sustain.  These  were 
important  factors  in  his  case  ;  and  it  was  natural  that 
in  the  selection  of  his  subjects,  he  should  carefully 
consider  his  condition  and  his  surroundings. 

We  know  the  various  subjects  on  which  Kant 
lectured  during  his  long  connexion  with  the  university, 
but  not  the  exact  order  in  which  he  took  them  up.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  follow  him  from  theme  to 
theme,  so  as  to  trace  the  development  of  his  mind  as 
indicated  by  his  lectures ;  but  as  the  catalogues  did 
not  give  his  name  until  he  became  a  professor,  this 
neglect  prevents  us  from  following  the  earlier  progress 
of  the  work  of  the  greatest  man  ever  produced  by  the 
university.  From  the  scattered  accounts  of  pupils  and 
others  we  learn  that  he  soon  increased  considerably  the 
subjects  of  his  lectures.  As  the  time  of  the  laborious 
student  permitted  and  as  his  mind  developed  he  took 
up  new  topics. 

In  1757  he  began  to  lecture  on  physical  geography. 
He  made  this  course  popular  rather  than  strictly  sys- 
tematic or  profoundly  scientific.  As  he  had  never 
travelled,  he  was  chiefly  dependent  on  the  accounts  of 
others,  and  he  made  these  lectures  the  repository  of  his 
thoughts  and  reading  on  the  earth  and  its  phenomena. 
In  the  programme  announcing  the  subject  for  the  first 
time,  he  proposes  to  discuss  the  sea,  continents,  islands, 
fountains  and  wells,  rivers  and  brooks,  the  atmosphere 
and  winds,  the  seasons  in  difl'erent  countries,  the 
changes  to  which  the  earth  has  been  subject,  and  the 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms ;  surely    he 


I 


£ 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


71 


gives  himself  ample  room  for  using  his  accumulated 
stores  of  geographical  and  physical  knowledge.  These 
lectures,  which  were  published  in  1802,  contained  many 
interesting  facts  and  generalizations,  as  well  as  vivid 
descriptions,  practical  hints,  and  anecdotes  ;  there  was 
also  a  vein  of  humour,  and  free  play  was  given  to  the 
imagination.  They  attracted  officers,  professional 
men,  and  merchants,  as  well  as  students  ;  and  they  are 
frequently  mentioned  as  exceedingly  interesting  and 
inspiring.  For  more  than  thirty  years  he  delivered 
them  every  summer,  and  they  were  very  popular. 
In  1778  the  Cabinet  Minister,  Von  Zedlitz,  wrote  to 
Kant  that  he  was  reading  a  manuscript  on  physical 
geography,  written  in  the  lecture-room  by  one  of  the 
students;  and  he  was  so  delighted,  with  what  he 
learned  from  that  imperfect  manuscript  that  he  be- 
seeches him  to  send  a  more  perfect  copy.  The  aim  to 
adapt  the  lectures  to  a  mixed  audience  made  their 
popular  character  surpass  their  scientific  value ;  and 
while  they  contain  much  interesting  material,  they  are 
now  of  little  importance  to  the  student  of  physical 
geography,  and  have  not  materially  promoted  the 
progress  of  the  science. 

From  January,  1758,  till  1762  the  Russians  had 
possession  of  Konigsberg.  They  had  the  management 
of  the  university  during  this  period,  but  permitted  it 
to  take  its  usual  course.  Some  of  them  encouraged 
literature,  and  the  number  of  Russian  students 
increased.  Having  been  repeatedly  invited  by  Russian 
officers  to  lecture  to  them  on  physics  and  physical 
geography,  Kant  complied  with  their  request. 

In  1759  he  published  a  short  article  on  "  Optimism," 
having  previously  lectured  on  the  subject ;  and  in  1763, 


'f: 


\> 


b; 


ii  'li 


72 


THE    LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


a  brochure  on  "  The  only  possible  Proof  of  the  Existence 
of  God,"  having  previously  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
on  "  Criticism  on  the  Proofs  of  the  Divine  Existence." 
It  is  also  probable  that  he  lectured  on  "  The  Emotion 
of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Subhme,"  on  which  subject 
a  small  volume  by  him  appeared  in  1764. 

This  gives  a  wide  range  of  topics  for  the  period  of 
his  tutorship,  and  there  may  have  been  others.  The 
students  requested  him  to  deliver  lectures  on  German 
style,  but  the  subject  was  too  remote  from  his  studies, 
and  he  therefore  declined;  the  request  is,  how- 
ever, significant.  After  he  became  a  professor  he 
also  lectured  on  the  encyclopedia  of  the  philosophical 
sciences,  natural  law,  ethics,  or  moral  philosophy, 
as  he  afterwai:ds  called  it,  anthropology,  natural 
theology,  and  pedagogics. (")  H:is  lectures  on  physical 
geography,  anthropology,  and  moral  philosophy  were 
the  most  popular  among  the  students  as  well  as  in  other 
circles,  and  were  the  means  of  giving  him  an  extensive, 
social,  moral,  and  intellectual  influence  in  the  city  and 

province. 

The  compends  used  as  the  basis  of  most  of  his 
lectures  were  merely  general  guides,  for  not  only  in 
the  details,  but  frequently  also  in  the  plan  and  the 
general  arrangement  he  went  his  own  way.  His 
copies  of  the  compends  were  interleaved  with  blank 
pages,  and  he  used  them  as  long  as  he  lectured ;  and 
while  professors  in  other  universities  were  already 
lecturing  on  the  Kantian  philosophy,  he  still  used  Meier 
on  logic,  and  Baumgarten  on  metaphysics.  An 
account  of  him  in  1795,  two  years  before  he  ceased  to 
lecture,  says  of  his  use  of  Meier's  Compend,  "  He 
always  brings  the  book  along.     It  looks  so  old  and 


»v 


COMPENDS. 


73 


soiled,  I  believe  that  he  has  brought  it  with  him  daily 
for  forty  years.  All  the  blank  leaves  are  covered  with 
writing  in  a  small  hand,  and  besides,  many  of  the 
printed  pages  have  leaves  pasted  over  them,  and  in 
other  cases  lines  are  frequently  crossed  out,  so  that,  as 
is  evident,  scarcely  anything  of  Meier's  Logic  is  left. 
Not  one  of  his  hearers  brings  the  book,  and  they  are 
intent  on  writing  only  his  own  words.  He  does  not, 
however,  seem  to  notice  this,  and  faithfully  follows  his 
author  from  chapter  to  chapter,  and  corrects  every- 
thing, or  rather  says  everything  in  a  different  way,  but 
with  the  most  innocent  air,  so  that  it  is  evident  that  he 
makes  no  pretensions  on  account  of  his  discoveries. "(^^) 
Besides  the  notes  on  the  blank  leaves  of  the  compends 
and  on  the  margins  of  the  printed  pages,  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  making  memoranda  for  his  lectures  on  slips 
of  paper,  on  envelopes  addressed  to  him,  and  on  the 
blank  parts  of  letters.  He  rarely  wrote  out  his  lectures 
in  full ;  as  a  rule,  he  did  this  only  when  they  were  to 
be  published.  But  after  carefully  elaborating  them 
mentally,  he  spoke  freely,  using  notes  and  compends 
only  as  skeletons ;  and  the  frequent  repetition  of  his 
lectures  made  even  these  almost  unnecessary  in  the 

course  of  time. 

While  his  lectures  were  learned  and  often  profound, 
bemg  the  result  of  his  extensive  researches,  penetrated 
and  moulded  by  his  master-mind,  they  differed 
materially  from  his  profound  metaphysical  works.  His 
"Kritikof  Pure  Reason"  was  never  delivered  in  the  form 
of  lectures.  When  he  spoke  to  the  students,  his  style 
was  generally  clear,  and  he  used  numerous  illustrations. 
But  in  metaphysics,  the  subject  itself  being  full  of 
inherent  difficulties,  it  frequently  required  close  atten- 


\- 


^ 


■  >' 


74 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


tion  to  follow  his  discussions. (^')  He  would  conduct 
various  processes  of  thinking  before  the  students, 
developing  one  thought  from  another,  and  indicating 
errors  here  and  there  in  the  processes,  thus  guiding  his 
hearers  in  the  construction  and  development  of  thought. 
For  able  minds  this  was  very  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive ;  but  there  were  many  who  would  lose  the  thread 
of  his  discourse ;  he  did  not,  however,  read  for  dull 
minds,  and  is  reported  to  have  said  repeatedly,  at  the 
beginning  of  his  lectures,  "  I  do  not  read  for  geniuses, 
their  endowments  being  such  that  they  will  make  a  way 
for  themselves ;  nor  for  the  stupid,  for  they  are  not 
worth  the  trouble ;  but  1  read  for  the  sake  of  those 
who  stand  between  these  two  classes,  and  want  to  be 
prepared  for  their  future  work." 

While  in  his  profounder  lectures  he  gave  the 
students  the  results  of  his  own  investigations,  it  was 
his  principal  aim  to  teach  them  to  think,  and  he  so 
frequently  emphasized  this  that  his  hearers  could  not 
make  the  mistake  of  imagining  that  he  expected  to  do 
the  thinking  for  them.  According  to  his  Logic,  a 
philosopher  is  one  who  philosophizes.  One  man  cannot 
make  another  a  philosopher,  however  much  learning 
he  may  impart,  though  he  may  help  him  to  become 
one ;  for  it  is  only  by  the  exercise  of  his  own  reason, 
by  thinking  for  himself,  that  one  becomes  a  philosopher. 
"  Every  philosophical  thinker  builds,  so  to  speak,  his 
work  on  the  ruins  of  another."  The  systems  of  philo- 
sophy are  constantly  changing ;  this  is  owing  to  the 
fact  that  none  exists  which  is  satisfactory.  "  As  none 
exists,  philosophy  of  course  cannot  be  learned ;  and 
even  if  it  existed,  no  one  who  learned  it  could  claim  to 
be  a  philosopher,  for  his  knowledge  would  only  be 
historical."     Whoever  wants  to  become  a  philosopher 


AIM. 


75 


must  view  all  systems  of  philosophy  as  merely  a  history 
of  the  use  of  reason  and  as  material  on  which  to 
exercise  his  philosophic  talent.  "  The  true  philosopher 
must  therefore,  as  a  thinker,  make  an  independent, 
not  a  slavish,  imitative  use  of  his  reason."  Kant's  aim 
in  his  metaphysical  lectures  was  to  arouse  the  mind 
to  activity,  and  to  make  thinkers  and  philosophers, 
rather  than  to  teach  a  system  of  philosophy.  As  he 
repeatedly  said,  he  wanted  his  hearers  to  learn  to  stand 
on  their  own  feet ;  hence  he  would  say  to  them,  "  You 
will  not  learn  philosophy  from  me,  but  to  philosophize  ; 
not  merely  thoughts  for  repetition,  but  to  think  "  In 
his  Logic  he  gives  three  important  rules  for  thought : 
First,  to  think  yourself ;  second,  to  put  yourself  in 
the  place  of  others ;  third,  always  to  think  consistently. 
The  first  is  the  enlightened,  the  second  is  the  enlarged, 
and  the  third  is  the  consequent  method  of  thinking. 
It  was  the  aim  of  his  lectures  to  promote  these 
methods ;  and  while  he  could  not  think  for  his  students, 
he  could  help  them  both  to  think  and  to  think  consis- 
tently; and  he  could  also  help  them  to  put  themselves  in 
the  place  of  others.  While  his  lectures  were  repositories 
of  rich  scholarship,  it  is  self-evident  that  he  was  no 
mere  collector  of  facts;  everywhere  and  always 
he  was  the  thinker,  appropriating,  elaborating,  and 
generalizing  what  he  had  gathered. 

After  1773  his  lectures  on  anthropology  were  the 
popular  course  for  the  winter,  as  those  on  physical 
geography  were  for  the  summer.  They,  too,  were 
attended  by  others  than  students.  As  those  on  phy- 
sical geography  contemplated  nature  as  a  traveller 
who  makes  thoughtful  journeys,  so  those  on  anthropo- 
logy thoughtfully  but  pleasantly  explore  the  mind's 
connexion  with  the  body,  giving  the  results   of  his 


mjimitiiMM 


m 


ii 


76 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


observations  on  himself  and  others,  and  also  of  his 
extensive  reading,  drawing,  it  is  said,  especially  from 
English  novels.  He  states  that  he  aims  to  reveal  to 
his  hearers  the  principles  of  morals,  of  skill,  of  the 
intercourse  of  persons  with  one  another,  and  of  the 
methods  of  developing  and  governing  men ;  that  is, 
the  principles  of  all  that  is  practical.  He  discusses 
phenomena  and  their  laws  rather  than  the  possibility 
of  modifying  human  nature,  and  avoids,  as  useless,  all 
subtle  investigations  of  the  manner  in  which  the  organs 
©f  the  body  are  connected  with  the  mind.  Kant  states 
that  it  is  his  purpose  to  give  the  results  of  his  obser- 
vations in  such  a  way  that  his  liearers  will  never  find 
any  part  dry,  but  everything  attractive ;  and  that  he 
hoped  by  means  of  these  lectures  to  train  young  men 
in  skill,  in  prudence,  and  in  wisdom. 

With  his  keen  sense  of  the  paradoxical,  his  high 
appreciation  of  the  humorous,  and  his  skill  in  relating 
anecdotes,  it  is  not  surprising  that  he  made  the  subject 
entertaining  as  well  as  instructive.  The  lectures  were 
published  in  his  Anthropology.  The  learning  of  this 
work,  its  perspicuity,  its  clear  discriminations,  its 
sententious  passages,  its  deep  insight  into  human 
nature,  its  anecdotes  and  illustrations,  its  revelations 
of  the  freaks,  contrasts,  and  paradoxes  of  men,  its 
humour  and  its  wit,  made  it  deservedly  popular,  and 
enable  us  to  understand  why  its  author  so  often  aroused 
and  inspired  his  hearers. (^^) 

Kant  disliked  exceedingly  every  kind  of  affecta- 
tion, and  his  manner  was  free  from  it  in  the  lecture- 
room.  With  little  more  than  his  head  visible,  he  sat 
behind  a  small  desk,  on  which  lay  his  compend,  and 
sometimes  slips  of  paper  with  notes.     A  description 


4^ 


f 


I 


POPULARITY. 


77 


of  him  at  the  age  of  seventy-one  states  that  his  delivery 
was  not  attractive,  but  altogether  in  the  conversational 
tone ;  occasionally  he  would  draw  his  hand  from  his 
buttoned  coat  and  make  a  slight  gesture ;  his  voice 
was  no  longer  clear ;  the  writer,  however,  says  that 
the  excellence  of  the  matter  amply  compensated  for  any 
defects  in  the  delivery,  and  adds,  ''  When  one  has 
become  accustomed  to  his  voice  so  as  to  be  able  to 
understand  his  words,  it  is  not  difficult  to  follow  his 
thoughts.  Recently  he  spoke  of  space  and  time,  and 
it  seemed  as  if  I  had  never  comprehended  any  one  so 
fully;  and  now  he  has  come  to  that  part  of  logic 
where  he  must  speak  of  cognition.  This  gives  him  an 
opportunity  to  discuss  its  perfection,  and  also  logical, 
aesthetic,  and  other  kinds  of  cognition.  The  principal 
thoughts  of  his  '  Critique  of  the  Judgment '  are  given  as 
easily,  clearly,  and  entertainingly  as  can  be  imagined. 
It  must  be  extremely  interesting  to  hear  his  whole 
course,  since  in  this  way  one  readily  becomes  ac- 
quainted with  all  his  thoughts." (*°) 

These  facts  enable  us  to  understand  why  Kant  at 
once  became  popular  as  a  teacher.  There  was  a 
marked  contrast  between  his  fresh  and  sprightly  lec- 
tures and  the  dull  pedantry  which  prevailed  in  learned 
circles ;  he  laid  the  sciences,  poetry,  general  literature, 
and,  in  fact,  all  the  departments  of  thought  under 
contribution,  in  order  to  make  them  rich  in  interest 
as  well  as  in  instruction.  Minds  which  were  active  as 
well  as  receptive  found  his  philosophical  lectures  mines 
of  thought ;  such  were  strongly  attracted  by  him,  and 
over  many  of  them  his  influence  was  astonishing. 
The  majority  of  his  hearers  could  not  appre(3iate  his 
profundity,  and  at  best  they  became  mere  echoes  of 


^' 


•^§.^tm<»mmtmmurm0\  Ifgtjf 


•».■■■  *  "  ■t*«w»isMe«'««'Wiw*»*iwii^ 


■•■^■"■■MftiiiwiaMrniiliiiilil 


78 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


INSPIRATION. 


79 


f' 


his  opinions  ;  but  numerous  young  men  received  from 
him  impulses  which  determined  their  whole  future 
career.  His  moral  lectures  especially  made  a  deep 
impression  ;  they  frequently  inspired  his  students  and 
filled  them  with  enthusiasm.  There  were  some  who 
almost  worshipped  him,  and  occasions  were  gladly 
seized  by  his  auditors  for  manifesting  their  apprecia- 
tion. While  he  was  still  a  tutor  he  attracted  persons 
from  a  distance  to  Konigsberg,  and  one  gentleman 
came  from  his  possessions  in  Poland,  for  several 
winters,  solely  for  the  purpose  of  enjoying  the  benefit 
of  his  superior  instruction. 

Of  the  enthusiasm  aroused  by  Kant  while  a  tutor, 
we  have  a  striking  illustration  in  the  case  of  Herder, 
who    spent  from  1762    to    1764  at   the    university. 
Although  he  was    a  student  of  theology,  Kant,   who 
permitted  the  indigent  young  man  to  hear  his  lectures 
gratis,    made   the    deepest   impression   on   him,    and 
wonderfully  stimulated  his  mind.     Herder  heard  him 
on    logic,     metaphysics,    morals,    mathematics,    and 
physical  geography.     Thirty  years  after  leaving   the 
university,  he    wrote,    '*  I  had  the  good  fortune  to 
know  a  philosopher,  who  was  my  teacher.     He  was  in 
his  best  years,  and  possessed  the  cheerful  vivacity  of 
youth,  which,  I  beheve,  he  preserves  even  in  his  old 
age.     His  open  brow,  formed  for  thought,  was  the 
seat    of    undisturbed    serenity    and    joy;    language 
freighted  with  thought  flowed  from  his  lips  ;  wit  and 
humour  were  at  his  command ;  and  his   instructive 
lecture  was  a  rich  entertainment.     In  the  same  spirit 
with   which   he   investigated  Leibnitz,    Wolf,    Baum- 
garten,  Crusius,  and  Hume,  and   traced  the  laws  of 
Newton,  Keppler,    and    the   scientists  generally,    he 


examined  the  writings  of  Rousseau  then  appearing, 
namely,  his  *  Emile  '  and  his  '  Heloise.'  He  placed 
the  true  estimate  on  every  physical  discovery  which 
came  to  his  notice,  and  always  returned  from  other 
studies  to  an  impartial  scrutiny  of  nature  and  the 
moral  worth  of  man.  He  drew  the  inspiration  for  his 
lectures  from  the  history  of  men,  of  nations,  and  of 
nature,  as  well  as  from  natural  science,  mathematics, 
and  his  own  observations.  He  was  not  indifferent  to 
anything  worth  knowing.  No  cabal,  no  sect,  no 
advantage  to  himself,  no  ambition,  had  the  least  in- 
fluence over  him  compared  with  the  development  and 
illustration  of  the  truth.  He  encouraged,  and  obliged 
his  hearers,  to  think  for  themselves  ;  despotism  was 
foreign  to  his  mind.  This  man,  whom  I  mention 
with  the  highest  esteem  and  gratitude,  is  Tmmanuel 
Kant.^n     , 

Herder,  receptive  and  yet  original,  ambitious  for 
learning  and  for  fame,  with  a  warm  heart  and  a  vivid 
imagination,  was  marvellously  influenced  by  his 
favourite  teacher,  and  at  times  his  fervour  bordered 
on  rapture.  A  fellow-student  says  of  him,  "  Eagerly 
he  seized  every  thought,  every  word  of  the  great 
philosopher,  and  afterwards  at  home  he  arranged  the 
thoughts  and  language.  Often  he  communicated  to 
me  what  he  had  written,  and  we  would  talk  it  over  in 
a  retired  arbour  of  an  unfrequented  public  garden  by 
the  old  Rossgart  Church.  Once,  in  the  early  morning 
hour,  Kant,  the  man  of  exuberant  spirits,  spoke  with 
unusual  mental  exaltation,  and,  when  the  matter  ad- 
mitted, with  poetic  inspiration,  quoting  his  favourite 
poets.  Pope  and  Haller.  With  bold  conjectures  he 
discoursed  on  time  and  eternity.     It  was  evident  that 


80 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANOEI;    KANT. 


It- 


Herder  was  powerfully  affected ;  and  when  he  came 
home  he  put  the  ideas  of  his  teacher  in  verses  which" 
would  have  done  honour  to  Haller.  Before  the  lecture 
on  the  next  morning  he  handed  them  to  Kant,  who, 
struck  with  the  masterly  poetic  representation  of  his 
thoughts,  read  them  with  warmth  and  with  praise  to 
his  auditors."  (*^) 

Herder  did  not,  however,  hear  all  the  lectures  of 
the  philosopher  with  enthusiasm.  He  preferred  those 
on  mathematics,  physical  geography,  and  physics; 
but  for  his  metaphysical  lectures  he  had  no  taste, 
desiring  more  life  and  less  abstraction,  more  that  per- 
tained to  leality  and  less  logic.  After  many  a  meta- 
physical lecture  he  would  take  a  poet,  Rousseau,  or  a 
similar  author,  and  hasten  into  the  fresh  air  to  get  rid 
of  the  unpleasant  impression. 

As  it  was  his  principal  aim  to  teach  his  students  to 
think,  Kant  was  not  a  friend  of  dictation ;  and  he  be- 
lieved that  the  students  who  were  best  able  to  grasp  his 
thoughts  were  those  who  during  the  delivery  of  the 
lecture  wrote  only  the  main  points  for  meditation, 
while  those  who  wrote  most  were  the  ones  who  were 
least  able  to  distinguish  the  more  from  the  less  im- 
portant thoughts,  and  consequently  mixed  a  lot  of 
misunderstood  stuff  with  the  clearly  apprehended  views. 
When  he  noted  that  the  less  important  things  were 
carefully  written,  while  the  more  weighty  ones  were 
omitted,  it  would  disturb  him. 

Judging  from  the  power  of  abstraction  revealed  in 
his  books,  one  would  hardly  suspect  that  the  great 
metaphysician  could  have  been  disconcerted  by  trifles ; 
yet  a  little  noise  in  the  lecture-room,  or  something 
unusual  in  the  appearance  of  the  students,  easily  em- 


mmmmp<^v»mimmttm 


)  \ 


1 


DISTRACTION. 


81 


barrassed  him.     Sometimes  even  the  sound  made  by 
the  pens  of  his  hearers  disturbed  him,  and  once  he 
said,  *' Gentlemen,  do  not  scratch  so;  I  am  no  oracle." 
He  was  in  the  habit  of  fixing  his  eye  on  some  student 
who  sat  near  him,  and  from  his  countenance  he  would 
infer  whether  he  was   being  understood.     Frequently 
the  expression  or  dress  of  the  student  whom  he  watched 
became  the  occasion  of  confusion.     Jachmann  gives  a 
striking  instance  :   "  One  hour  his  distraction  specially 
arrested  my  attention,  and  at   noon  Kant   complained 
to  me  that  his  thoughts  had  been  interrupted   con- 
tinually because  a  button  was  wanting  on  the  coat  of 
one  of  his  hearers.     Involuntarily  his  eyes  had  been 
attracted  to  this  defect,  and  it  was  this  which  had  so 
distracted  him.     At  the  same  time  he  remarked  that 
this  is  more  or  less  the  experience  of  every  one ;  thus, 
when  a  person  has  lost  a  front  tooth  one  naturally 
looks  constantly  at  the  place  where  the  tooth  is  want- 
ing.    He  also  makes  this  remark  several  times  in  his 
Anthropology."     Peculiarities    in  the    appearance    of 
students  were  apt  to  disturb  him,  such  as  a  bare  neck, 
an  exposed  breast,  or  long  hair  hanging  carelessly  over 
the  neck  and  brow,   which   were  regarded  by   some 
youths  as  evidences  of  genius.     It  is  said  that  when 
he    became    especially    serious,    and    thought    deeply 
furrowed  his  brow,  he  would  fix  his  eyes  on  a  certain 
student  who  always  sat  immediately  before  him,  was 
extremely  uncouth  and  dull,  and  found  the  lectures, 
which  went  far  beyond  his  horizon,  very  tedious.     He 
manifested  his  weariness  by  long  yawning,  which  at 
one  time  so  disturbed  Kant  that  he  said  with  some 
excitement,    "  If   one    cannot   avoid    yawning,    good 
manners  require  that  the  hand  should  be  held  before 


\ 


g2  THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 

tte  mouth."     The  narrator  adds.  - 1  believe  that  after- 
wards   the   amanuensis    effected    a   change   of   place 
between  him  and  another  student."  (")        .     _,       .      , 
After  Kant  became  a  professor  and  received  a  faxed 
salary,  it  was  his  rule  to  lecture  only  twice  a  day,  from 
Beven  to  nine  in  the  morning,  thus  leaving  more  time 
for  his   literary   labours.(")     H:is   course  on   natural 
rehgion  he  delivered  only  twice,   discontinuing  it  in 
1794,   because   the   Government    had   called  him   to 
account  for  his  theological  views.     In  1 795  he  brought 
all  his  private  lectures  to  a  close,  on  account  ot  his 
age  and  feebleness.     From  that  time  until  the  end  ot 
the  summer  semester  of  1797,  when  he  closed  all  his 
lectures,  he  delivered  only  pubhc  ones,  namely,  tour  a 
week  on  logic  in  summer,  and  the  same  number  m 
winter  on  metaphysics.     Long  before  this  his  delivery 
had  lost  much  of  its  vivacity,  owing  to  his  weakness 
and  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  lectures,     in 
1791  Fichte   found  them   uninteresting  and  drowsy. 
When  Kant  was   seventy,  a  hearer  reported  that  his 
metaphysical   thoughts    were   digressive    and    lacked 
perspicuity.    "A  young  man  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  could 
comprehend  but  little  connectedly  in  these  lectures; 
the  benefit   which    I   received    was  from   occasional 
bright    thoughts    which    flashed    into    my    soul.     I 
beHeve   that   at    that   time    older   students   fared   no 
better."     Rink  says,  "  It  cannot  be  denied  that  already 
in  the  eighth  decade  of  last  century  his  lectures  lost  so 
much  of  their  life  that  it  seemed  as  if  he  must  be 
on  the  point  of  falling  asleep,  an  opinion  which  was 
confirmed  when,   with  a  vigorous  movement   of  the 
body,  he  was  seen  to  arouse  himself  suddenly.     But  m 
spite  of  this  he  continued  to  the  last  to  be  a  very 


LIBRAEIAN. 


83 


conscientious  teacher,  and  I  cannot  remember  that  he 
missed  a  single  hour." 

With  all  his  popularity,  his  circumstances  while  a 
tutor,  especially  in  the  beginning  of  his  connexion  with 
the  university,  were  not  easy.  Once  a  student,  who 
was  himself  poor,  brought  him  the  pay  for  his  lectures ; 
Kant  took  only  so  much  of  the  money  as  he  still  needed 
for  the  payment  of  his  rent,  and  returned  the  rest.  In 
order  to  be  free  from  debt,  which  he  resolved  to  avoid 
at  all  hazards,  he  was  obliged  to  live  very  plainly. 
The  income  from  his  lectures  being  meagre,  he  occa- 
sionally took  charge  of  some  young  men  whose  educa- 
tion he  superintended.  With  the  statement  to  this 
effect,  approved  by  Kant  himself  in  Borowski's  sketch, 
Jachmann  agrees,  but  he  is  more  explicit.  "  During  the 
first  years  of  his  tutorship  in  the  university,  the  receipts 
from  his  lectures  were  small,  and  he  was  often  obliged 
to  live  very  economically,  so  as  to  avoid  pecuniary  em- 
barrassment. He  had  laid  aside  twenty  Louis-d'or 
which  he  never  touched,  so  that  in  case  of  sickness  he 
might  be  secure  from  absolute  need.  In  order  not  to 
use  this  fund,  he  found  it  necessary  to  sell  his  library  of 
choice  books,  since  he  could  not  meet  his  expenses  with 
his  income.  ' 

His  first  appointment  to  a  position  with  a  salary 
was  in  1766,  when  he  became  second  librarian  in  the 
Royal  Library.  The  Government  in  Berlin,  in  the 
letter  appointing  him,  designated  him  as  "  the  able 
Kant,  made  famous  by  his  books."  His  salary  was 
sixty-two  thalers  a  year.  There  were  many  excellent 
books  in  the  library,  especially  among  the  accounts  of 
travel ;  and  constant  access  to  these  was  of  advantage 
to  the  voracious  reader.     About  the  same  time  he  was 

G  2 


\ 


84 


THE    LIFE   OP    IM MANUEL   KAKT. 


also  appointed  superintendent  of  a  private  cabinet  of 
natural  and  ethnographical  objects,  being  cbosen  for 
this  place  on  account  of  his  knowledge  of  natural  his- 
tory.    The  cabinet,  being  one  of  the  sights  of  Konigs- 
berg,   was   visited  by   many   strangers    to   whom  he 
was  obliged  to  exhibit  the  curiosities.     This  was  dis- 
agreeable to  Kant,  because  it  interfered  with  his  studies, 
and  since  those  who  visited  the  cabinet  were  generally 
more  impelled  by  curiosity  than  a  desire  to  learn.     He 
soon  resigned  this  position,  and  in  1772  the  one  in 
the  Royal  Library,  which  he  also  disliked.     Kant  had 
neither  tact  nor  inclination  for  business  of  any  kind  ; 
and  whatever  took  time  from  his  studies  or  made  him 
the  agent  in  gratifying  idle  curiosity  was  irksome. 

It  seems  incredible  that  a  man  with  his  gifts  with 
his  scholarship  and  his  extensive  reputation,  should 
have  been  obliged  to  toil  for  fifteen  years  as  a  mere 
tutor  ;  but  such  was  the  case.     In  1756,  one  year  after 
he  became  a  tutor,  he  applied  for  the  extraordmary 
professorship  of  mathematics,  logic,  and  metaphysics, 
which   had  been   vacant  since   1751,  when  Knutzen 
died  •  but  as  the   country  was   much   disturbed,  the 
Sevek  Years'   War  being   imminent,  the  Government 
decided  not  to  fill  that  position.     In  1758  the  pro- 
fessorship in  ordinary  of  logic  and  metaphysics  became 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Professor  Kypke    and  Kant 
apT)hed  for  the  appointment.     Professor  Schulz,  the 
friend  of  his  youth,  favoured  his  application,  though  it 
is  evident  that  he  was  suspicious  of  Kant's  religious 
views.     Besides  abandoning  theology,  the  philosopher 
had  probably  given  him  other  reasons   for  suspecting 
the  soundness  of  his  faith.     He  requested  Kant  to  call 
on  him.     When  he  entered  the  room,  Schulz  asked 


FIFTEEN   YEARS   A   TDTOB. 


85 


him  solemnly,  "  Do  you  in  your  heart  fear  God  ? " 
The  academic  senate,  to  which  the  application  was 
made,  however  decided  in  favour  of  Dr.  Buck,  who 
had  been  a  tutor  longer  than  Kant.  The  city  was  then 
in  the  possession  of  the  Russians,  whose  commanding 
general  confirmed  the  choice  of  the  senate. 

But  his  merits  were  too  conspicuous  and  his  reputation 
too  extensive  for  the  general  government  to  lose  sight  of 
Kant.  In  1763  he  was  a  contestant  for  a  prize  offered 
by  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  dissertation  was 
entitled,  "  Investigations  respecting  the  Clearness  of  the 
Principles  of  Natural  Theology  and  Morals."  («)  The 
first  prize  was  given  to  Moses  Mendelssohn,  the  most 
eminent  representative  of  the  Popular  philosophy ;  the 
second  was  awarded  to  Kant.  This  distinction  intro- 
duced his  name  to  the  Government,  as  well  as  to  scholars 
in  Berlin.  From  various  official  documents  it  is  evident 
that  in  Government  circles  he  was  highly  esteemed  on 
account  of  his  scholarship,  and  that  the  authorities 
intended  to  appoint  him  to  the  first  vacant  professor- 
ship in  the  philosophical  faculty.  Accordingly,  in 
1764,  when  the  professorship  of  rhetoric  and  poetry 
became  vacant,  the  minister  of  education  wrote  to  the 
authorities  at  Konigsberg  to  inquire  into  Kant's  fitness 
for  the  appointment,  and  his  willingness  to  accept  it  if 
tendered.  The  letter  says,  "  A  certain  magister,  Im- 
manuel  Kant,  has  become  known  to  us  through  his 
Avorks,  which  give  evidence  of  thorough  scholarship." 
Kant  was  not  yet  the  abstract  metaphysician,  and  he 
had  given  sufficient  evidence  that  he  could  write  beauti- 
fully; and  it  was  perhaps  thought  that  his  varied 
attainments  fitted  him  for  any  position.  But  to  imagine 
the  mathematical  and  metaphysical  Kant  as  spending 


86 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


PROFESSOR. 


^ 


tte  remainder  of  his  days  on  rhetoric  and  in  versifica- 
tion,  and  in  trying  to  teach  aspiring  geniuses  the  art 
of  torturing  words  into  metre  and  rhyme,  and  ot  giving 
to  airy  nothing  a  local  habitation  and  a  name  !     ihe 
incumbent  was  obliged  to  prepare  the  official  poems 
for  the  special  occasions  and  numerous  celebrations 
connected  with  the  university ;  and  it  is  self-evident  that 
neither  nature  nor  his  education  had  adapted  him  to 
this  professorship.     The  minister,  being  informed  that 
he  did  not  desire  the  appointment,  wrote  to  the  Konigs- 
berg  authorities  that  the  Government  had  decided  to 
offer  him  some  other  position  in  the  university,  saying, 
««  The  very  able  magister  Kant,  who  teaches  with  such 
general  approval,  shall  be  promoted  at  the  first  oppor- 
tunity, and  you  are  to  announce  this  to  him;  and  when 
such  an  opportunity  occurs  you  are  to  propose  him 

immediately." 

Nevertheless  he  was  obliged  to  wait  six  years  longer 
before  a   suitable   vacancy   occurred.     Meanwhile  his 
reputation  attracted  the  attention  of  other  universities 
to  his  superior  abilities.     In  1769  an  effort  was  made 
to  secure  him  as  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in 
Erlangen,  and  a  correspondence  with  him  took  place  on 
the  subject.     Seeing  no  hope  of  a  speedy  promotion  to 
a  professorship  in  Konigsberg,  he  thought  seriously  of 
accepting;  and  the  report  that  he  was  coming  excited 
much  joy  among  the  students  in  Erlangen.     At  the 
same  time  he  was  urged  to  accept  the  professorship  of 
philosophy  in  Jena.     If  the  professorship  of  mathe- 
matics  in  K6nigsberg  had  not  become  vacant  at  that 
time,  Kant  would  probably  have  been  lost  to  this  city. 
This  position  was,  however,  placed  at  his  disposal.     In 
view  of  his  early  preference  for  mathematics,  he  might 


t 


i 


have  accepted  it,  and  then  the  world  would  probably 
never  have  known  him  as  the  great  metaphysician; 
but  Professor  Buck  desired  the  chair  of  mathematics, 
and  offered  Kant  his  professorship  of  logic  and  meta- 
physics. Kant  accepted  this  offer,  and  in  1770,  after 
fifteen  years  of  toil  as  a  humble  tutor,  and  when  forty- 
six  years  of  age,  he  became  professor  in  ordinary 
of  logic  and  metaphysics,  never  having  occupied  the 
intermediate  position  of  professor  extraordinary. 

In  order  that  he  might  become  a  professor,  it  was 
necessary  for  him  again  to  present  a  Latin  dissertation. 
In  its  subject  and  treatment  the  one  prepared  for  this 
occasion  was  worthy  of  the  man  who  was  called  to 
teach  metaphysics,  and  it  is  historically  significant 
from  the  fact  that  in  it  Kant  for  the  first  time  publicly 
gave  some  of  the  most  important  principles  afterwards 
developed  in  the  "  Kritik."  It  was  a  discussion  of  the 
difference  between  sensation  and  understanding,  with 
the  title,  "The  Form  and  Principles  of  the  World  of 
Sense  and  of  the  Intellect."  {'') 

After  he  became  a  professor,  he  could  lecture  on 
subjects  not  immediately  connected  with  his  professor- 
ship, for  in  this,  as  in  so  many  other  respects,  there  is 
great  freedom  in  German  imiversities.  But  a  professor 
must  lecture  on  the  subjects  for  which  he  is  appointed, 
is  expected  to  make  a  speciality  of  them,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  for  them  a  preference  and  special 
adaptation.  Kant's  position  now  in  a  measure  de- 
fined the  sphere  of  his  intellectual  activity ;  and  from 
his  correspondence  we  learn  that  for  years  he  had 
given  particular  prominence  to  the  study  of  meta- 
physics. Henceforth  he  is  less  a  mathematician  and 
physicist  than  formerly,  and  in  his  thoughts  and  lectures 


88 


THE    LIFE   OF    IMMANCEL   KANT. 


SALARY. 


89 


I! 


I  I 


\ 


and  books  he  restricts  himself  mainly  to  speculative 
and  moral  philosophy. 

Kant  began  his  career  as  professor  under  the  most 
favourable  auspices.     He  was  in  his  best  years,  had  the 
favour  of  the  Government,  had  learning  which  was  as 
extensive  as  it  was  solid,  and  had  acquired  an  enviable 
reputation  for  scholarship.    The  popularity  which  he  en- 
joyed while  a  tutor  was  increased  after  he  became  a  pro- 
fessor, and  culminated  when  the  "Kritik"  gave  him  cele- 
brity.    In  May,  1786,  Hamann  wrote  that  he  went  with 
his  son  at  six  in  the  morning  to  Kant's  lecture-room, 
an  hour  before  he  read,  the  attendance  being  so  large  in 
the  first  months  of  a  semester  as  to  make  this  necessary 
in  oi-der  to  secure  a  place.     A  few  years  before  this, 
Hamann  stated  that  Kant  was  reading  on  philosophical 
theology,  and  that  the  rush  to  hear  him  was  astonish- 
ing.    At  the  time  when  his  fame  was  at  its  height, 
manypersons  not  connected  with  the  university  attended 
his  lectures,  and  numbers  came  from  a  distance  to  hear 

him. 

His    position   as   professor    not   merely   gave   him 
greater  influence  and  authority,  but  also  an  opportimity 
to  concentrate  his  efforts,  since  he  was  no  longer  obliged 
to  lecture  so  frequently  for  the  sake  of  a  livelihood ; 
still,  when  he  began  his  professorship  he  was  very  busy, 
partly  in  preparing   new  lectures.     A  letter   written 
at  this  time  states  that  a  Hterary  project  was  neces- 
sarily delayed  on  account  of  his  "  laborious  academic 
work."     His  salary  was  four  hundred  thalers  ;  besides 
this,  he  had  an  income  from  those  who  attended  his 
private  lectures.     This  was  more  than  enough  for  a 
man  with  so  few  wants,  and  whose  whole  Ufe  had  been 
disciplined   by  an  enforced  economy.      The   king,  in 


1 


1 


1789,  increased  the  sum  by  the  addition  of  220  thalers, 
making  his  stated  income  620  thalers,  or  about  90L, 
the  highest  salary  ever  received  by  Kant.  As  the 
attendance  at  his  lectures  was  large,  this  must  have 
been  a  source  of  considerable  revenue  ;  and  m  his  later 
years  he  also  received  an  income  from  his  books. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  Kant's  extraordinary  popu- 
larity aroused  some  opposition  to  him  in  the  faculty ; 
his  rehgious  views  may  also  have  given  occasion  for 
attacks.     Some  of  his  older  colleagues,  finding  them- 
selves   overshadowed    by   Kant,    made     insinuations 
aoainst   him   in   their  lectures ;   but  by  his   younger 
colleagues,  most  of  whom  had  been  his  pupils,  he  was 
respected  and  kindly  treated,  one  only  excepted.     This 
one  was  a  tutor  and  an  enthusiastic  follower  of  the 
philosopher  Crusius.     Having  made  rude  attacks  on 
Kant  in  his  lecture-room,  just  as  he  had  on  Wolf  and 
others,  he  was  silenced  for  awhile ;  when  he  proposed 
to  read  again,  the  students,  who  had  come  for  that 
purpose,  interrupted  and  so  disconcerted  him  that  he 
was  obliged  to  desist,  and  he  abandoned  his  lectures 

altogether. 

About  a  year  after  Kant  was  appointed  a  professor, 
Von  Zedlitz  became  minister  of  pubhc  instruction.  He 
took  great  pains  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
universities.  A  letter  from  him  to  the  civil  authorities 
in  Konigsberg  gives  an  idea  of  the  condition  of  the 
university  in  that  city,  and  also  of  the  esteem  m  which 
Kant  was  held  by  the  Government.  The  mmister 
finds  fault  with  the  institution  because  modern  htera- 
ture  seems  to  be  ignored  in  the  lectures ;  because  the 
professors,  with  the  exception  of  Kant  and  Reuss, 
read  on  compends  which  are  antiquated ;  because  on 


.1   1 


• 


90 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


INDUCEMENTS    TO    GO    TO    HALLE. 


91 


some  important  subjects  no  lectures  are  announced — 
such  as  Public  and  German  Law,  Botany,  and  Prussian 
and  Brandenburg  History ;  and  because  the  philosophy 
of  Crusiiis  is  still  taught  by  some,  though  generally  it 
has  been  found  to  be  unsatisfactory.  The  teachers  who 
are  disciples  of  Crusius  are  ordered  to  abandon  their 
lectures  on  philosophy,  unless  they  can  free  themselves 
from  his  system,  and  are  to  chose  some  other  topics. 
Another  professor  is  admonished  to  avoid  verbosity 
*'  as  much  as  possible,  since  the  discourse  which  has 
been  most  thoroughly  elaborated  is  always  the  most 
condensed."  The  teachers  are  also  exhorted  to  accumu- 
late new  stores  of  knowledge  by  diligent  study.  Sad 
indeed  must  have  been  the  intellectual  character  of 
the  university  to  make  such  a  letter  necessary  or  even 
possible ;  but  the  general  stagnation  made  Kant's  broad 
learning,  and  fresh,  vigorous,  and  profound  thoughts 
all  the  more  powerful,  and  his  position  the  more  con- 
spicuous. 

Von  Zedlitz,  who  was  a  warm  admirer  of  Kant,  in 
1778  offered  him  the  professorship  of  metaphysics  in 
Halle,  where  the  number  of  his  students  would  have 
been  much  larger  than  in  Konigsberg,  and  his  in- 
fluence much  greater;  he,  however,  declined  the 
position.  The  minister,  who  was  very  anxious  that  he 
should  accept,  renewed  the  offer,  and  presented  for  his 
consideration  the  advantages  of  Halle,  hoping  in  this 
way  to  induce  him  to  accept  the  place.  A  salary  of 
800  thalers  was  offered,  just  double  the  amount  which 
he  was  then  receiving ;  Von  Zedlitz  also  states  that 
the  climate  of  Halle  is  much  healthier  than  that  of 
Konigsberg,  and  that  the  number  of  students  is  from 
1000  to  1200,  or  more  than  twice  as  many  as  in  the 


J 


latter  city ;  and  as  another  inducement,  he  mentions  the 
fact  that  he  is  desirous  of  restoring  Halle  to  its  former 
pre-eminence,  and  of  making  it  the  centre  of  learnmg  in 
Germany,  by  attracting  thither  the  most  eminent  men. 
Nevertheless  Kant  refused  to  leave  his  native  city.     A 
letter  written  by  him  in  the  same  year  enables  us  to 
understand   his  reasons    for   rejecting   this   tempting 
offer.     He  states   that  he  is  not  ambitious  for  gam, 
nor  for  fame  in  a  conspicuous  position,  but  prefers  a 
quiet  place   where  he    can    devote  himself  to  study, 
speculation,  and  society,  and  where  his  easily  affected 
mind,  and  still  more  easily  aff*ected  though  never  really 
sick  body,  can  be  properly  preserved,  and  adds,  "  All 
change  makes  me  fearful,  even  if  it  gives  the  greatest 
promise  of  an  improvement  in  my  condition  ;  and  I 
believe  that  I  must  heed  this  instinct  of  my  nature  if  I 
want  to  extend  to  its  full  length  the  thread  which  the 
Fates  have  spun  very  thin  and  weak."    As  the  "  Kritik  " 
was  approaching  completion,  he  may  also  have  feared 
that  a  change  might  involve  him  in  new  labours  which 
would  interfere  with  the  progress  of  that  work. 

Kant  became  a  member  of  the  academic  senate  in 
1780,  and  held  this  position  until  his  feebleness  led  him 
to  resign  it  in  1801.  He  was  the  dean  of  the  philo- 
sophical faculty  six  times,  and  twice  the  rector  of  the 
university ;  but  celebrated  as  he  was  for  scholarship, 
he  did  not  distinguish  himself  in  either  position.  Even 
for  the  business  affairs  of  the  university,  except  so  far 
as  they  pertained  to  learning  and  morals,  he  had 
no  taste,  and  he  gladly  left  their  management  to 
others.  When  his  official  position  of  dean  or  rector 
required  him  to  act  alone,  he  generally  followed  the 
precedents,  not  venturing  on  innovations ;  and  when 


BB^Si(BSiS%t-.*     -  "-I  HI  !■  ■ 


' 


92 


THJb:    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


he  transacted  business  in  concert  with  tlie  other  mem- 
bers of  the  senate,  he  generally  voted  with  the  majority. 
In  his  old  age,  he  preferred  to  be  excused  from  serving 
as  dean  or  rector ;  and  when  he  was  elected  dean  in 
1794  and  again  in  1798,  he  was  excused;  and  he  was 
also  released  from  the  duties  of  the  rectorate  when  in 
1796  it  was  his  turn  to  fill  that  office. 

It  was  charged  that  as  dean,  Kant  was  too  lenient 
in  his  examination  of  the  students.  He  cared  more 
about  their  judgments  than  their  memories,  and  less 
about  the  amount  they  knew  than  how  they  knew. 
Professor  Kraus  remarks,  with  reference  to  the  charge 
that  Kant  did  not  examine  sharply,  and  that  as  rector 
he  was  not  strict,  "  If  he  did  not  examine  rigorously, 
it  was  because  the  whole  affair  was  exceedingly  dis- 
agreeable to  him,  and  to  such  a  mind,  and  with  his 
pursuits,  it  could  not  be  otherwise.  He  disliked  the 
rectorate  on  account  of  the  many  cases  of  dishonesty 
with  which  he  became  acquainted.  All  evidences  of 
dishonesty  and  immorality  were  odious  to  him." 

When  Prussia  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom 
in  1701,  Frederick  I.  came  to  Konigsberg,  his  native 
city,  and  placed  the  crown  on  his  head;  since  that 
time  it  has  been  the  coronation  city  of  the  Prussian 
kings.  It  was  during  Kant's  rectorate  that  Frederick 
William  II.  ascended  the  throne  and  went  to  Konigs- 
berg to  be  crowned.  The  philosopher,  who  took  no 
prominent  part  on  festival  occasions,  nor  delivered  any 
public  addresses,  except  when  required  to  do  so  by 
his  official  position  as  rector,  was  at  this  time  intro- 
duced to  that  monarch.  Shortly  after  this,  Kant's 
salary  was  increased  by  the  king,  and  he  was  also 
elected  a  member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences. 


93 


CHAPTER  IV. 


PHYSICAL    BASIS. 


Appearance— Head— Peculiar  experience  with  his  eyes— State  of 
Health— Study  of  his  physical  condition— View  of  medicine- 
Dietetics— Mastery  of  mind  over  body— Art  of  prolonging  life. 

Kant's  physique  was  not  proportionate  to  his   massive 
intellect.     He  was  below  the  medium  size ;  and  when 
somewhat    bowed  by  old  age,   he  was  described   as 
scarcely  five  feet  high.     "  His  body  seemed  to  have 
received  from  nature  the  impress  of  feebleness  as  its 
characteristic."     His  bones  were  small  and  weak,  but 
proportionately  his  muscles  were   still  weaker.     One 
who  had  been  his  acquaintance  for  fifty  years,  said, 
'-Ever  since  I  knew   him,    his    body  was    extremely 
emaciated,  and  at  last  it  was  dried  like  a  potsherd." 
On  Eauch's  celebrated  monument  of  Frederick  II.,  in 
Berhn,  Kant  is  represented  with  other  eminent  men  of 
that  monarch's  reign.     The  artist  had  much  difficulty 
in  modelling  a  figure  worthy  of  his  great  fame  and  yet 
true  to  nature.     He  is  represented  as  raising  his  right 
hand  to  make  a  gesture  while  talking  with  Lessing, 
who  is  at  his  side,  and  in  his  left  he  holds  a  cane  and 
his  three-cornered  hat.     He  wears  a  wig,  tied  to  which 
is  a  bag  which  hangs  on  his  shoulders.     His  forehead  is 


94 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANIJEL    KANT. 


APPEARANCE. 


95 


I 


1 


broad  and  square ;  his  cheek-bones  are  high  and  the 
cheeks  are  sunken;  his  Hps  protrude  and  the  chin 
recedes  ;  the  chest  is  depressed  and  the  abdomen  is 
prominent.  The  compressed  chest  was  an  inheritance 
from  his  mother.  His  right  shoulder  was  turned 
backward  and  was  considerably  higher  than  the  other  : 
in  old  age  this  deformity  became  more  apparent,  and 
gave  him  the  appearance  of  being  very  much  bent. 
With  the  exception  of  his  crooked  nose,  the  rest  of  his 
body  was  symmetrical.  Most  of  the  pictures  of  Kant 
in  old  age,  judged  by  descriptions  of  him  by  his 
acquaintances,  flatter  him. 

After  his  death,  his  head  was  carefully  examined, 
but  there  was  no  dissection.  While  there  were  a 
number  of  prominences  on  the  forehead,  there  were 
scarcely  any  on  the  back  part  of  the  head.  The 
measurement  through  the  head,  from  the  root  of  the 
nose,  was  seven  and  three-quarter  inches  (German), 
its  width  from  ear  to  ear,  six  and  a  half.  The  fore- 
head, which  receded  gradually,  was  narrow  at  its  base 
and  broad  at  the  top.  From  the  base  of  the  nose  to 
the  top  of  the  head  the  measurement  was  five  inches. 

When  in  1880  the  remains  of  Kant  were  transferred 
to  the  chapel  erected  in  honour  of  his  memory,  his 
skull  was  subjected  to  the  most  minute  examination. 
As  the  result  of  this  investigation,  his  head  was 
declared  to  be  large  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the 
body.  The  capacity  of  the  skull  was  unusual,  being 
much  larger  than  the  average  of  Prussian  and  Lithuanian 
skulls ;  its  height  and  length  were  only  medium,  but 
its  width  in  some  parts  was  remarkable.  The  breadth 
at  the  temples,  of  the  forehead,  and  of  the  entire  front 
part  of  the  head,  was  found  to  l)e  only  ordinary,  while 


in  the  middle  and  the  back  part  it  was  extraordinary ; 
and  the  right  side  of  the  skull  was  larger  than  the 

left.  CO  ,  . 

The  appearance  of  Kant  indicated  the  student ;  his 

narrow  chin  and  thin  cheeks  gave   his  head  special 
prominence,  and  impressed  the  beholder  with  the  pre- 
ponderance  of  the   intellect.     His  eyes,  which  were 
not  large,  were  lively,  tender,  and  penetrating  ;  their 
colour    was  blue,  a  fact  on  which,   for  an  unknown 
reason,   Kant   laid   some  stress.      When    he   became 
animated  in  his  lectures  or  conversations,  there  was 
an   irresistible    fascination    in  his   look.       Jachmann 
describes  his  face  as  pleasing,  and  thinks  that  in  youth 
it  must  have  been  handsome.     With  the  enthusiasm 
characteristic  of  him  when   speaking   ofhis  beloved 
teacher,    he    says,     "  Where  shall    I  find    words    to 
describe  his  eyes  !     Kant's  eye  looked  as  if  it  had  been 
formed    of  heavenly  ether.  ...  It    is   impossible  to 
describe  his  enchanting  look  and  my  emotions  when  he 
sat   opposite   and  suddenly  raised  his  eyes  to  look  at 
me."      Borowski  writes,  "  It  did  one  good  to  behold 
his  eyes.     In  viewing  his  fine  forehead  one  immediately 
perceived  the  deep  thinker,  and  a  glance  at  his  eyes 
revealed   the    good-natured  man."       "  His   hair   was 
blond ;  there  was  a  fresh  colour  in  his  face,  and  even 
in    old    age  his  cheeks  retained  a   healthy  redness." 
All  liis  senses  were  strong  and  keen,  his  hearing  being 
especially  distinguished  for  sharpness  and  dehcacy.     If 
he  heard  a  pecuhar  voice,  or  if  any  one  spoke  in  an 
unusual  key,  it  at  once  attracted  his  attention  ;  and 
he  disliked  exceedingly  an  affected  or  unnatural  tone. 
As  might  be  expected  from  the  structure  of  his  chest, 
his  voice  was  weak,  and  at  a  little  distance  it  required 


96 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


close  attention  to  understand  him.  He  sometimes 
pitched  it  very  high,  and  until  he  was  seventy  it  could 
stand  a  severe  strain. 

His  organization  was  so  delicate  that  he  was  ex- 
tremely sensitive  to  impressions  from  external  objects, 
and  Jachmann  relates  that  a  newspaper  fresh  from  the 
press  and  still  damp  could  give  him  a  cold.  This 
extreme  sensitiveness  partly  accounts  for  the  fact  that, 
in  spite  of  his  singular  power  of  abstraction,  he  was 
so  easily  disturbed  in  the  lecture- room. 

In  old  age  the  appearance  of  Kant  was  not  calculated 
to  impress  a  stranger  favourably  at  first  sight ;  his  ele- 
vated shoulder  and  bent  form  made  his  diminutive  sta- 
ture still  less  imposing  than  in  the  vigour  of  youth.  Pro- 
fessor Kraus  describes  him  in  later  years  as  "  almost 
always  keeping  his  head  bowed  down  and  hanging  on 
one  side,  the  bag  of  his  wig  mostly  disordered  and  lying 
on  one  shoulder."  With  a  sudden  motion  of  his  head 
he  would  throw  the  bag  back,  and  the  servant,  passing 
behind  his  chair,  frequently  restored  it  to  its  proper 
place;  but  it  would  soon  fall  to  the  left  again. 
Strangers  who  knew  nothing  of  his  appearance  were 
disappointed  when  they  saw  him.  An  English  letter 
says,  "  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  greatness  of 
a  celebrated  man  must  be  evident  from  his  appearance. 
If  you  come  to  Kant  with  this  notion,  you  will  be 
astonished  to  find  before  you  a  small,  emaciated  man, 
always  bowed  down  while  walking,  whose  eyes,  as  well 
as  the  rest  of  the  features,  are  a  reproach  to  phy- 
siognomy." This  is  no  doubt  too  strong;  those 
who  knew  him  best,  say  nothing  of  repulsiveness  in  his 
appearance.  A  better  acquaintance,  a  closer  study  of 
his   features,  and   repeated    conversation   with   him, 


STRANGE   EXPEKIENCE    WITH    HIS   EYES. 


97 


i, 


revealed  hidden  attractions  and  removed  any  unfavour- 
able impressions  made  at  first  sight. 

He  had  peculiar  experience  with  his  eyes.  This 
was  the  case  for  the  first  time  when  he  was  already 
past  forty ;  afterwards  the  same  phenomenon  occurred 
occasionally,  and  in  one  year  several  times.  Sometimes 
while  reading,  the  letters  would  suddenly  become  indis- 
tinct, mixed,  and  unreadable ;  this  never  lasted  longer 
than  six  minutes.  He  said  that  for  a  preacher  who  was 
in  the  habit  of  reading  his  sermons,  such  an  experience 
might  be  very  serious,  but  for  himself  in  the  lecture-room, 
since  he  was  not  confined  to  his  notes,  it  had  no  other 
effect  than  to  cause  the  apprehension  that  it  might  be 
the  forerunner  of  blindness ;  but  after  having  several 
such  attacks,  and  finding  that  his  sight  was  not  affected 
thereby,  his  fears  were  allayed.  Once,  whilst  subject 
to  this  strange  experience,  he  closed  his  eyes,  and  put 
his  hand  over  them  in  order  the  more  effectually  to 
exclude  the  light.  He  then  saw  a  figure  resembling 
the  last  quarter  of  the  moon  as  represented  in  the 
almanac,  as  if  drawn,  in  the  dark,  on  paper  with 
phosphorus,  but  with  an  indented  border  on  the  con- 
vex side.  The  figure  gradually  lost  its  brightness, 
and  disappeared  altogether  within  six  minutes. 

Once,  in  returning  from  a  walk,  he  for  a  long  time 
saw  the  steeple  of  a  church  double.  But  still  more 
singular  is  the  fact  that  his  left  eye  became  totally 
blind  without  his  own  knowledge  or  that  of  his  friends. 
One  day,  while  taking  his  usual  walk,  he  seated  himself 
on  a  bench  and  tried  to  determine  with  which  eye  he 
could  see  best.  Taking  a  paper  from  his  pocket,  he 
closed  his  right  eye,  and  to  his  astonishment  dis- 
covered that  he  could  see  nothing  with  the  other.     He 


■WHUiAa 


Sfi 


98 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL  KANT, 


INDISPOSITION. 


99 


N 


:  I 

h 


did  not  know  when  the  eye  had  become  blind,  but  sup- 
posed  that  it  must  have  happened  three  or  four  years 
before  he  made  the  discovery.  The  fact  was  ascertained 
by  him  a  good  many  years  before  his  death,  and  it  is 
thought  that  for  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  his  left 

eye  was  sightless. 

In  spite  of  his  compressed  chest  and  the  delicacy  of 
his  system,  Kant's  life  was  remarkably  free  from  sick- 
ness.     He  said  that  he  remembered  no  illness  in  earher 
life  except  an  attack  of  ague,  and  of  that  he  had  cured 
himself  by  a  vigorous  walk.     Frequently,  however,  ho 
was   indisposed,    and   to   a  lady   inquiring  about  his 
health,  he  said  that,  properly  speaking,  he  was  never 
well  and  never  sick ;  not  the  former,  because  he  was 
never  free  from  pain,  there  being  a  constant  pressure 
below  the  chest,  on  the  pylorus  ;  not  the  latter,  because 
he  had  never  been  sick  a  day,  nor  had  he  ever  needed 
medical  aid,  excepting  a  few  pills  which  he  had  taken 
by  the  advice  of  a  friend,  to  reheve  constipation.     His 
digestive  organs  seem  to  have  been  early  deranged ; 
to  this  he  ascribed  his  frequent  ailments,   and  to  the 
last  it  caused  him  perpetual  trouble. 

In  the  year  1770,  in  which  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor, he  speaks  of  long  indisposition  during  the 
summer,  and  says  that  the  excessive  burden  of  his 
lectures  prevented  the  needed  recreation  and  interfered 
with  his  correspondence  ;  he  hopes  in  the  future  to  bo 
less  pressed  by  his  lectures  and  to  recover  the  small 
measure  of  health  which  ho  formerly  enjoyed.  His 
excessive  labours  were,  no  doubt,  partly  the  cause  of 
his  disorders.  Instead  of  entirely  recovering  his 
health,  we  find  that  from  this  time  his  letters  frequently 
mention  his  indisposition.     During  the  preparation  of 


the  "  Kritik  "  and  the  works  which  followed  it,  he  was 
in  delicate  health.  He  wrote  in  1778  that  for  many 
years  he  had  been  accustomed  to  regard  himself  well 
with  a  degree  of  health  so  small  that  many  would  have 
complained.  This  condition,  he  says,  admonished  him 
to  take  care  of  himself  and  attend  to  recreation.  He 
also  says,  "  I  find  myself  in  my  usual,  that  is,  weak 
way,  healthy ;  I  never  enjoyed  a  much  greater  degree 
of  health."  A  year  earlier  he  complained  that  he  was 
suffering  considerably,  and  that  he  was  daily  indisposed. 
This  physical  debility  interfered  greatly  with  his 
intellectual  labours ;  his  works  were  delayed  thereby, 
and  some  plans  may  have  been  entirely  frustrated. 
He  regarded  it  as  a  great  obstacle  in  the  execution  of 
his  projects,  and  in  1789  he  wrote  to  a  friend  in 
Berhn,  "  Think  of  it,  most  worthy  friend  !  Sixty- 
six  years  old,  constantly  disturbed  by  indisposition  in 
plans  only  half  completed,  and  diverted  from  my  course 
by  all  kinds  of  written  and  even  printed  appeals  ;  how 
difiicult  it  is  for  me  to  perform,  without  some  neglect 
here  or  there,  what  I  regard  as  my  duty  !  "  In  the 
same  year  he  wrote  to  Professor  Reinhold  about  the 
disadvantages  of  growing  old,  since  it  obliged  him  to 
work  mechanically,  and  added,  "  For  several  years  I 
have  found  it  necessary  to  refrain  from  devoting  my- 
self to  uninterrupted  study,  whether  in  reading  a  book 
or  in  reflection."  He  could  still  work  in  the  forenoon  : 
but  in  the  evening  he  was  obliged  to  change  the  subjects 
of  study  frequently,  as  otherwise  he  could  not  sleep. 
"  In  the  sixty-sixth  year,  subtle  investigations  always 
become  more  difiicult,  and  one  would  gladly  avoid  them 
if  only  others  could  be  found  to  undertake  and  complete 
them."     In  order  to  secure  time  for  study  and  author- 

H   2 


I 


if  fi 


I 


100 


THE   Mi'E   OF   IllMANUEL  KANT. 


ship,  he  was  obliged  to  take  his  well  moments  from  the 
culture  of  friendship  and  from  his  correspondence,  and 
to  concentrate  them  on  his  intellectual  pursuits ;  and 
his  feeble  health  is  frequently  mentioned  in  his  corre- 
spondence as  his  apology  for  delay  in  answering  the 

letters  of  friends. 

Kant  was  fully  aware  of  his  frail  condition,  and  made 
his  physical  state  a  subject  of  special  study  and  of 
scrupulous  care ;  he  studiously  investigated  the  means 
of  preserving  health  and  diligently  practised  the  art 
of  prolonging  life.     Hygiene  was  one  of  his  favourite 
topics  of  conversation  in  all  kinds  of  company ;  and 
he  so  often  discussed  the  same  subjects  and  repeated 
the    same   thoughts,  that  they   became   monotonous. 
He  watched  the  moods  of  his  body  critically,  and  in- 
quired into  the  physical  condition  of  his  acquaintances ; 
he  was  eager  to  learn  the  experience  of  his  friends 
respecting  the  effects   of  food  and  climate,   and  the 
remedies  used  when  ill ;  he  studied  meteorology  in  its 
relation  to  health,  and  carefully  examined  the  statistics 
of  mortality,  which,  at  his  request,  were  sent  to  him 
weekly   by  the   director   of  the  police.     It  was   his 
ardent  desire  to  reach  a  ripe  old  age  ;  and  he  frequently 
mentioned  persons  who  had  attained  a  great  age,  and 
estimated  his  own  probable  chances  of  life. 

For  awhile  he  made  a  frequent  use  of  quinine,  but 
afterwards  abandoned  it.  Until  extreme  old  age,  he 
took  very  little  medicine ;  he  spoke  disparagingly  of 
its  use,  declaring  that  it  was  synonymous  with  poison 
(pharmacon).  He  regarded  it  as  peculiarly  injurious 
to  himself,  and  wrote  to  a  friend,  "  On  account  of  my 
sensitive  nerves,  medicine,  without  exception,  is  poison 
to  me."     When  old,  he   said,  "  I  shall  die,  but  I  do 


I 


VIEWS  Oh'  MEDICINb). 


101 


not  want  to  die  by  means  of  medicine.  When  I  am 
sick  and  weak,  they  may  do  with  me  what  they  please, 
I  shall  submit  to  anything;  but  I  shall  take  no  pre- 
servative." He  humorously  related  the  story  of  a  man 
who  had  drugged  himself  to  death.  Although  in  good 
health,  he  constantly  took  medicine  to  ward  off  sick- 
ness, and  by  this  means  destroyed  his  life.  This  was 
his  epitaph  :  *'  N.  IST.  was  well,  but  because  he  wanted 
to  be  better  than  well,  he  is  here."  But  while  he  had 
little  faith  in  medicine,  Kant  took  a  deep  interest  in 
medical  books,  partly  on  account  of  his  interest  in 
science  in  general,  but  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  his 
health.  In  the  last  decade  of  the  century,  when  the 
system  of  the  Scotch  physician,  John  Brown,  became 
popular  among  medical  men  in  Germany,  Kant  became 
its  advocate,  and  recommended  it  to  his  friends ; 
but  he  had  little  faith  in  the  power  of  doctors  to  cure 
the  ills  of  the  flesh.  There  were,  indeed,  a  number  of 
physicians  among  his  personal  friends,  but  he  did  not 
esteem  them  because  they  belonged  to  the  medical 
profession.  He  even  thought  that  doctors  might  be 
dispensed  with  altogether,  unless  they  occupied  their 
time  with  the  study  of  chemistry,  galvanism,  and  new 
discoveries  in  science. 

Kant  regarded  dietetics  as  the  most  important 
element  in  hygiene.  Regularity  in  eating,  drinking, 
and  sleeping,  with  proper  recreation  after  work,  he 
esteemed  of  far  more  importance  than  medicine,  be- 
cause they  prevent  sickness.  In  1778  he  writes  that 
his  constitution  is  so  feeble  that  he  can  preserve  his 
health  only  by  means  of  great  uniformity  in  his  method 
of  life,  and  in  his  mental  state ;  and  five  years  later  he 
says  that  a  hygienic  rule  which  he  found  long  ago  in  an 


t     *'VtA\    ,1  /. 


i-<te-tL^  , 


\ 


It  fi/^-'- 


<K  ^^ 


v^ 


f-^H^ 


102 


THE  LIFE   OP  IMMANUEL  KANT. 


r. 


\ 


)_- 


English  autlior  had  been  adopted  by  him,  namely,  that 
every  person  should  have  his  own  peculiar  way  of  being 
healthy,  which  he  cannot  alter  without  risk.  In  follow- 
ing this  rule,  he  finds  that  though  he  is  always  obliged 
to  contend  with  indisposition,  he  is  never  sick.  And 
he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  those  live  longest 
who  are  least  anxious  to  prolong  life,  yet  are  careful 
not  to  shorten  it  by  interfering  with  the  beneficent 
natural  powers  of  the  body. 

Kant  made  frequent  experiments  with  his  body,  and 
in  the  course  of  time  gained  such  control  over  it  as  to 
make  it  the  obedient  instrument  of  his  mind.  In  a 
letter  to  Dr.  Hufeland,  he  discusses  the  art  of  being 
the  master  of  one's  sickly  feelings  by  mere  force  of 
will.  His  own  power  in  this  respect  was  extraor- 
dinary, of  which  the  following  is  an  illustration.  "  On 
account  of  my  flat  and  narrow  chest,  which  affords 
but  little  room  for  the  movement  of  my  heart  and 
lungs,  I  have  a  natural  predisposition  to  hypochondria, 
which  in  earlier  years  bordered  on  w^eariness  of  life. 
The  reflection,  however,  that  the  cause  of  this  oppres- 
sive feeling  was  probably  only  mechanical,  and  could 
not  be  removed,  soon  brought  it  to  pass  that  I  paid  no 
attention  to  it;  and  while  I  felt  oppressed  in  my 
chest,  my  head  was  clear,  and  I  possessed  a  cheerful- 
ness which  I  could  voluntarily  communicate  in  society ; 
and  I  was  not,  as  hypochondriacs  usually  are,  subject 
to  variable  moods.  Since  we  enjoy  life  more  on 
account  of  what  we  do  than  what  we  receive,  intellec- 
tual labours  can  resist  those  interferences  which  pro- 
ceed solely  from  the  body,  by  promoting  a  different 
kind  of  feeling.  The  oppression  in  my  chest  re- 
mained, for  its  cause  lies  in  the  structure  of  my  body ; 


■J 


J 


WILL — POWER. 


103 


but  I  have  become  master  of  its  influence  on  my 
thoughts  and  actions,  by  turning  my  attention  away 
from  this  feeling  altogether,  just  as  if  it  did  not  at  all 
concern  me." 

Kant,  as  a  close  and  thoughtful  observer  of  his 
physical  condition,  sought  to  discover  the  causes  of  his 
frequent  indisposition  and  to  learn  the  remedy.  Some 
of  the  experiments  which  he  made  with  himself  were 
entirely  successful.  Finding  that  he  was  subject  to 
colds  which  disturbed  his  sleep,  he  resolved  to  draw 
his  breath,  with  closed  lips,  only  through  his  nostrils. 
This  succeeded  admirably  in  overcoming  the  difficulty ; 
it  prevented  coughing,  and  enabled  him  to  fall  asleep 
immediately.  In  this  way  he  so  effectually  formed  the 
habit  of  breathing  through  his  nostrils  only,  that  he 
did  it  even  in  his  sleep. 

Sometimes  he  suffered  from  thirst  immediately  after 
retiring.  In  order  to  get  water  he  would  have  been 
obliged  to  go  into  another  room  in  the  dark ;  to  avoid 
this  he  made  the  experiment  of  drawing  several  deep 
draughts  of  breath,  at  the  same  time  expanding  his 
chest,  and  drinking,  as  it  were,  the  air  through  his 
nostrils,  by  which  means  the  thirst  was  quenched  in  a 
few  seconds.  He  regarded  the  thirst  as  an  irritation 
which  was  relieved  by  a  counter-irritant. 

His  power  of  abstraction  was  of  great  service  to 
him  in  mastering  his  sickly  feelings.  Even  in  old 
age  he  could  overcome  sleeplessness  by  withdrawing 
his  thoughts  from  the  object  on  which  they  were 
fixed,  and  concentrating  them  on  another.  At  that 
time  a  pain  in  his  head  similar  to  a  cramp  interfered 
\  with  his  sleep ;  but  by  withdrawing  his  attention 
from   it  he   overcame    the    difficulty.     He   was   able 


» 


104 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


to  concentrate  his  mind  so  perfectly  on  a  chosen 
subject  that  the  pain  was  treated  as  if  it  did  not  exist, 
and  the  consciousness  of  it  was  lost.  Being  subject 
to  what  he  called  rheumatic  attacks,  he  overcame  the 
sleeplessness  caused  thereby  in  the  same  way,  by  sheer 
force  of  will.  "  That  these  were,  however,  not  ima- 
ginary pains  was  proved  by  the  glowing  redness  which 
was  seen  early  the  next  morning  on  the  toes  of  my 
left  foot."  (^^)  His  own  experience  made  him  confident 
that  many  rheumatic  attacks,  and  also  cases  of 
epilepsy  and  podagra,  can  be  resisted  by  a  firm  reso- 
lution of  the  will,  and  that  in  the  course  of  time  they 
may  be  completely  cured. 

Life  was  prized  by  Kant  on  account  of  its  opportu- 
nities for  intellectual  development  and  moral  culture, 
and  the  body  was  valued  as  the  means  to  this  end. 
He  was  accustomed  to  say  that  one  should  know  how 
to  adapt  himself  to  his  body ;  and  by  carefully  study- 
ing his  physical  system,  and  by  strenuous  efforts  of  his 
resolute  will,  he  conquered  unfavourable  conditions  to 
which  others  would  have  succumbed.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  he  was  often  supposed  to  be  in  excellent 
health,  when  it  was  only  by  force  of  will  that  he  kept 
his  mind  from  brooding  over  his  indisposition.  Think- 
ing it  ignoble  to  be  continually  complaining,  he  was 
disposed  to  say  but  little  about  his  ailings,  until  in  his 
old  age  his  infirmities  increased  and  his  will  lost  its 
resoluteness. 

Kant  was  never  confined  to  his  bed  by  illness  except 
in  the  last  year  of  his  life,  and  then  only  a  few  days, 
though  for  a  number  of  years  he  was  very  weak  and 
subject  to  considerable  suffering.  In  his  old  age  he 
at  one  time   declared  that  he  was   only  vegetating, 


l 


** 


1  ■ 


I 


PEOLONGlNa   LIFE. 


105 


being  still  able  to  eat,  drink,  walk,  and  sleep,  but  no 
longer  of  any  benefit  to  society.  Physically  he  re- 
garded himself  well ;  but  so  far  as  social  life  was  con- 
cerned he  was  ill ;  and  he  spoke  of  himself  despon- 
dently as  "  this  candidate  for  death."  This  condition 
he  viewed  as  the  result  of  his  previous  efforts  to  pro- 
long life,  the  wisdom  of  which  he  now  questioned. 
'*  It  is  to  this  that  the  art  of  prolonging  life  leads, 
namely,  that  one  is  merely  tolerated  among  the  living, 
a  state  which  is  not  the  most  enjoyable."  He  fears 
that  he  may  be  in  the  way  of  a  younger  generation ; 
''but  it  is  my  fault,"  he  says,  thinking  that  if  he  had 
not  been  so  intent  on  prolonging  life,  he  might  have 
ended  his  earthly  career  when  he  ceased  to  live 
intellectually  and  socially. 


106 


THE    LIFE   OP   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


CHAPTER  V. 

MENTAL   CHARACTEEISTICS. 

Intellectuality — Memory — Judgment — Opposition  to  Dogmatism, 
Prejudice,  and  Fanaticism — Power  of  analysis  and  synthesis 
— Sense  of  the  ludicrous — Wit — Abstraction — Originality — 
Union  of  Excellencies — Strange  psychological  fact — Study  and 
appreciation  of  other  systems — Political  views — Imagination — 
Emotional  nature — Transformation — Dogmatic  spirit — Es- 
thetic culture — Views  of  music,  oratory,  poetry,  and  genius — 
Reading — Library — Depreciation  of  history — Polymathist. 

In  his  small,  lean  body  and  capacious  mind  we  have  a 
symbol  of  Kant's  physical  and  intellectual  interests 
and  relations.  This  gives  the  point  of  view  from 
which  the  man  himself  and  his  whole  life  must  be 
considered.  His  intellectuality  almost  amounted  to  a 
passion ;  and  history  furnishes  few  examples  of  men 
whose  minds  were  so  completely  on  the  throne,  and 
were  so  absolute  in  their  sway  as  to  subject  the  whole 
being  to  their  supremacy.  If  the  sovereignty  of  the 
intellectual  was  ever  disputed,  it  was  only  by  his 
moral  interests  and  tendencies.  That  these  were 
potent  factors  is  as  evident  from  his  profoundest  meta- 
physical as  from  his  ethical  works ;  and  both  the  pur- 
pose and  the  result  of  the  "  Kritik  "  are  practical.  In 
contrasting  the  theoretical  with  the  practical,  he  does 
not  hesitate  to  give  the  latter  a  decided  preference; 


4 


db. 


PREDOMINANCE   OP   INTELLECT. 


107 


he  places  the  practical  reason  above  the  speculative, 
and  morality  is  the  culmination  of  his  whole  philo- 
sophy.    Owing  to  his  undisputed  supremacy  in  meta- 
physical abstractions,  the  relation  of  his  thoughts,  his 
works,  and  his  life,  to  realities  is  generally  overlooked. 
While  this  is  a  serious  mistake  in  forming  an  estimate 
of  his  philosophy,  it  is  still  more  serious  in  considering 
the  man  himself.     But  while  recognizing  the  union  of 
the  abstract  and  the  concrete,  of  the  theoretical  and 
the  practical,  we  nevertheless  find  that  his  exaltation 
of  the  practical  and  the  moral  is  chiefly  intellectual. 
He,  indeed,  applied  his  moral  rules  to  himself,  both  for 
the  formation  of  his  character  and  for  the  government 
of  his  life,  and  his  success  was  remarkable  ;  yet,  taking 
his  life  as  a  whole,  we  find  that  the  intellect  was  his 
domain,  that  the  study  was  his  home,  and  that  thought 
was  to  him  the  essence  of  Hfe.     As  far  as  morahty  is 
concerned,  he  was  chiefly  intent  on  finding  for  it  a 
firm  basis  and  on  giving  an  intellectual  system  of  the 
theory  of  practice.     When  the  theory  was  found,  its 
practical  application  was  for  Kant  a  matter  of  course. 
His  speculations  have  been  made  the  basis  of  morals, 
as  well  as  of  philosophical  systems,  and  his  works  are 
rich  in  theories  which  admit  of  important  practical 
applications ;  and  his  disciples  have  applied  them  to 
various  departments  of  life,  making  applications,  even, 
of  which  Kant  never  thought.     While,  however,  there 
is  so  much  in  Kant  which  belongs  to  the  practical  and 
to  morals,  the  intellect  must  be  viewed  as  the  focus  of 
his  being.     Now  it  takes  a   purely  speculative  turn, 
then  it  deals  with  physics  or  with  mathematics ;  now 
it  contemplates  theology,  then  morahty  ;  but  whatever 
the  subject  may  be,  he  lifts  it  into  the  region  of  the 


108 


THE   LIFE   OF  IMMANOEL  KANT. 


MEMOEY. 


109 


>- 


>r 


intellect,  and  there  disposes  of  it.  In  tlie  ordinary 
sense,  he  was  certainly  not  a  practical  man ;  but  it 
may  be  said  that  he  was  speculatively  practical,  or  if 
it  did  not  seem  too  paradoxical,  that  he  was  theo- 
retically practical.  An  expression  of  Kant  himself 
indicates  the  deepest  tendency  of  his  being  :  ''  I  am  an 
investigator  from  inclination.  I  feel  a  burning  thirst 
for  knowledge  and  eager  unrest  to  make  progress  in 
it,  but  also  gratification. with  every  advance." 

In  examining  his  mental  faculties,  we  find  that  his 
memory  was  prodigious.  Professor  Kraus  says  that  it 
was  "  incredibly  strong ;"  and  another  acquaintance 
states,  *'  His  memory  is  astonishing  Even  now,  in  his 
old  age,  when  free  from  physical  pain,  he  remembers 
perfectly  all  he  has  read  on  a  subject."  This  exaggera- 
tion shows  how  remarkably  retentive  his  memory  must 
have  been,  as  otherwise  it  could  not  have  made  such 
an  impression.  Late  in  life,  when  he  readily  forgot 
recent  impressions,  he  still  remembered  earlier  ones, 
and  could  correctly  and  easily  repeat  long  passages 
from  favourite  authors.  Professor  Knutzen  delivered 
lectures  on  mnemonics,  which  may  have  aided  him  in 
the  development  of  this  faculty ;  and  in  his  Pedagogics, 
Kant  specially  commends  a  system  of  mnemonics.  He 
admonishes  teachers  to  be  particularly  careful  to 
cultivate  the  memory  of  their  pupils,  an  evidence  of 
the  importance  he  attached  to  this  faculty.  To  secure 
this  end,  he  thinks  the  memory  should  be  occupied  only 
with  important  objects,  such  as  are  worthy  of  being 
remembered.  Consequently,  he  pronounces  the  read- 
ing of  novels  injurious  to  children ;  it  weakens  the 
memory,  since  the  novel  is  intended  only  for  amuse- 
ment, not  for  retention  in  the  memory  or  for  repetition. 


It  would  be  ridiculous  to  desire  to  remember  novels  and 
relate  them  to  others.  Therefore  all  novels  ought  to 
be  taken  from  children."  It  should  be  remembered 
that  both  in  character  and  in  literary  importance  the 
novel  of  the  eighteenth  century  dilfered  greatly  from 
the  better  class  of  more  recent  works  of  fiction. 
Being  himself  a  master  of  method,  he  advised  his 
students  so  to  classify  their  knowledge  as  to  be  able 
at  once  to  place  what  they  learned  into  its  own 
department,  because  this  would  not  merely  aid  them 
to  systematize,  but  also  to  retain  their  knowledge. 

His  forgetfulness  of  ordinary  affairs,  which  has 
been  mentioned,  arose  largely  from  the  fact  that  they 
did  not  much  interest  him  or  attract  his  attention.  It 
was  altogether  different  with  the  subjects  which  he 
studied.  He  was  interested  not  merely  in  principles 
but  also  in  details ;  and  as  he  had  an  excellent  memory 
for  words  and  events,  as  well  as  for  thoughts,  his 
knowledge  was  exact  as  well  as  comprehensive. 
Jachmann,  who  suggests  that  his  study  of  mathematics 
probably  developed  this  exactness,  gives  some  illustra- 
tions of  his  memory  for  details.  Once  he  described 
Westminster  Bridge  in  the  presence  of  a  resident  of 
London,  giving  its  form,  its  dimensions,  and  the 
arrangement  of  its  parts,  so  accurately  and  minutely, 
that  the  Englishman  inquired  how  many  years  he  had 
lived  in  London,  and  whether  he  had  devoted  himself 
especially  to  architecture  ?  With  surprise  he  learned 
that  Kant  had  never  been  outside  of  the  province.  On 
another  occasion  he  spoke  so  familiarly  about  Italy 
with  an  Italian,  that  he  was  asked  how  long  he  had 
resided  there  ?  When  already  sixty  years  old,  he 
devoted   himself  with   great   zeal    to    the   study   of 


110 


THE   LIFE   OK  IMMAN0EL   KANT. 


JUDGMENT. 


Ill 


i 


chemistry,  and  so  completely  did  ho  master  the 
nomenclature  and  the  details  of  experiments  made  by 
others,  that  he  gave  an  exact  account  of  some  of  these 
experiments  in  a  conversation  with  an  eminent 
chemist.  Surprised  at  the  accuracy  of  the  details,  the 
chemist  exclaimed  that  he  did  not  see  how  it  was 
possible  for  any  one  to  understand  experimental 
chemistry  so  perfectly  without  having  made  or  seen 
any  experiments. 

While  Kant  certainly  cannot  be  classed  with  those 
who  depreciate  memory  in  order  to  exalt  speculative 
thought  more  highly,  he  did  not  place  a  high 
estimate  on  learning  unless  connected  with  reflection 
and  sound  judgment.  Memory  was  to  him  but  the 
storehouse  in  which  are  deposited  the  materials  for 
reflection.  He  himself  combined  vast  learning  with 
profound  philosophical  acumen ;  and  with  his  metaphy- 
sical mind  he  could  not  value  highly  erudition  without 
philosophic  insight.  His  "Anthropology"  says,  "  There 
is  gigantic  learning  which  is  frequently  found  to  be 
Cyclopean — it  lacks  one  eye."  And  in  his  ''  Pedagogics," 
he  calls  those  who  have  a  good  memory,  but  little 
judgment,  ''  the  asses  of  Parnassus,"  which  are  useful 
in  carrying  material  for  others,  even  if  they  themselves 
construct  nothing  valuable. 

The  character  of  Kant's  judgment  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  mathematics  was  a  favourite  study, 
that  he  criticized  systems  of  metaphysics  and  generally 
accepted  methods  of  logic,  and  that  he  subjected  the 
reason  itself  to  the  most  searching  critique  in  the 
history  of  philosophy.  Where  others  were  satisfied 
with  probability,  he  demanded  certainty ;  he  under- 
mined arguments  which  had  withstood  the  attacks  of 


centuries  ;  and  where  others  fell  back  on  intuition  and 
on    propositions    held  as    self-evident,  he    demanded 
mathematical    demonstration.      No   one    knew  better 
than  he  that  the  problems  of  mathematics  are  entirely 
different  fromthoseof  philosophy,  and  that  consequently 
the  method  of  the  one  should  not  be  adopted  by  the 
other,  and  for  this  reason  he  opposed  the  method  of 
the  Wolfian  philosophy;    but  at   the  same   time   he 
aimed    to    secure    for    philosophy    all    the    possible 
definiteness  and  certainty  of  mathematics.     A  philo- 
sophical writer  says,  "  Kant's  purely  logical  contempla- 
tions were  easily  connected    with   the  mathematical, 
to  which  they  were  intimately  related;"  and  of   his 
system  he  says   that   it   is   permeated    by  a  logical, 
mathematical  spirit.  ^      In  his  criticisms,  Kant  aimed 
to  make  his  judgment  pure ;    that  is,  free   from  the 
influence  of   authority,  prejudice,  and   emotion.     He 
regarded  it  as  the  first  requisite  of  a  philosopher  that 
he  be  consequent;   and  we   find   that  he  resolutely 
and  remorselessly  follows  the  dictates  of  his  reason, 
equally  regardless  of  the  authority  he  destroys,  and  of 
the  practical  consequences.  Without  looking  backward, 
forward,  or  aside,  his  critical  spirit  moves  on  as  coldly 
and  resistlessly  as  fate;  and  he  was,  what  Mendelssohn 
called    him,    "the    all-destroying   one"    (der    AUes 

Zermalmende).  .  . 

But  Kant's  judgment  was  slow  in  its  decisions.  He 
admired  the  readiness  with  which  an  acquaintance, 
who  was  a  judge,  decided  complicated  questions, 
stating  that  he  could  not  do  it  so  readily.  We  can 
understand  this  slowness,  when  we  consider  with  what 
thoroughness  he  investigated  problems.  A  judgment 
may  be  quick  because  superficial  or  ignorant;  Kant's 


112 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


was  slow  because  so  deep  and  learned  and  scrupulously 
careful.    He  was  accustomed  to  view  an  argument  from 
all  points  and  in  every  possible  light,  to  see  whether 
it  could  stand  the  severest  tests.     This  required  time ; 
and   haste  in  the  solution   of  problems    such    as  he 
investigated,    might  have   proved  fatal  to  his  whole 
philosophy.     His  dread  of  error,  and  the  earnest  desire 
to  make  his  position  impregnable,  made  him  slow  and 
cautious.     Convinced  that  this  is  the  only  safe  course, 
he  says,  "  To  move  with  rapid  steps  in  undertakings 
which  lead  to  a  great  and  remote  goal,  has  at  all  times 
been  disadvantageous  to  a  thorough  insight."     Much 
of  his  life  was  spent  in  plodding,  and  in  digging  at  the 
roots  of  thought  to  find  their  last  and  deepest  fibres. 
This  work  required  great  care  and  clear  discrimination, 
and  it  was  necessarily  slow ;  but  it  was  thorough,  and 
has  produced  lasting  results. 

Closely  connected  with  the  critical  spirit  which  con- 
trolled his  judgment,  was  his  bitter  opposition  to  dog- 
matism, whether  found  in  philosophy  or  in  religion ;  it 
almost  seems  as  if  he  personified  it  and  then  pursued  it 
with  a  personal  hatred.     His  own  earlier  entanglement 
in  its  meshes  may  have  contributed  to  inspire  his  later 
animosity.       He    defines    as    dogmatism    all   positive 
assertions  without  preceding  criticism;  or  "a  general 
confidence  in   principles  without  a  previous  criticism 
of  the  power  of  the  reason   itself."     Scepticism,  the 
opposite  of  dogmatism,  is  a  general  mistrust  of  reason 
without  such  criticism.     It  was  Lis  hope  that  he  micrht 
destroy  dogmatism  by  his  *'Kritik,"  and  he  says,  *'  This 
is  certain  :  whoever  has  tasted  critique  is  for  ever  dis- 
gusted with  all  the   dogmatic  products  with  which  he 
was  formerly  obliged  to  content  himself  because  his 


prejudice:. 


113 


i 


reason  needed  something  and  discovered  nothing 
better  for  its  entertainment."  An  arrogant  tone  was 
intolerable  to  him,  and  he  rebuked  it  severely. 

Kant  himself,  however,  was  considerable  of  a  dog- 
matist, but  in  a  sense  different  from  his  definition  of 
the  word ;  that  is,  after  making  such  a  criticism  as  he 
demands,  he  makes  assertions  of  the  most  dogmatic 
character.  He  wants  all  to  think  for  themselves  ;  and 
yet  his  tone  is  at  times  such  as  to  leave  the  impression 
that  he  thinks  he  has  so  absolutely  settled  certain 
points  that  henceforth  they  cannot  be  questioned. 
Perhaps  this  is  necessary  in  a  system ;  then  it  proves 
that  a  certain  dogmatic  spirit  is  unavoidable.  Even  this 
expression  escapes  him  in  his  *'  Prolegomena,"  "  I  am 
security  for  the  correctness  of  all  these  proofs  ;"  just  as 
if  one  can  be  such  an  authority  for  another  as  to  make 
the  investigation  of  the  processes  which  lead  to  cer- 
tain conclusions  unnecessary.  His  dogmatism  was,  of 
course,  that  of  a  mind  conscious  of  its  strength,  very 
conscientious  in  its  processes,  and  perfectly  convinced 
of  the  correctness  of  its  conclusions.  Compared  with 
many  of  his  professed  disciples  and  also  with  some  of 
the  later  philosophers,  Kant  is  very  moderate  in  the 
use  of  that  intolerable  spirit  in  metaphysics  which 
regards  its  own  system  as  the  absolute  philosophy,  and 
which  has  done  so  much  to  bring  metaphysical  in- 
vestigations into  disrepute.  He  himself  published  a 
brochure  against  the  aristocratic  tone  which  was 
beginning  to  be  heard  in  philosophy.  (^^) 

Prejudice  he  treated  with  a  bitterness  similar  to 
that  directed  against  dogmatism.  In  his  first  book  he 
speaks  of  the  great  number  over  whom  prejudice  and 
the   authority   of   eminent  persons   have   a  ''  horrible 


114 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


FANATICISM. 


115 


/ 


dominion."  At  the  age  of  forty- two  he  wrote,  "  I 
have  purified  my  soul  from  all  prejudices ;  I  have 
destroyed  every  blind  devotion  which  ever  crept  into 
my  mind  for  the  purpose  of  creating  in  me  much 
imaginary  knowledge.  Now  I  esteem  nothing  as  of 
consequence  or  worthy  of  respect  except  what  honestly 
takes  its  place  in  a  mind  which  is  calm  and  accessible 
to  all  evidences,  whether  confirmative  or  destructive  of 
my  former  opinions.  Wherever  I  find  anything  that 
instructs  me,  I  accept  it.  The  verdict  of  the  man 
who  refutes  my  arguments  is  my  verdict  after  I  have 
weighed  it  against  self-love  and  my  reasons,  and  then 
have  found  its  evidence  the  stronger.  Formerly  I 
viewed  the  common  human  understanding  only  from 
the  standpoint  of  my  own ;  now  I  put  myself  in  the 
place  of  a  reason  foreign  to  me  and  outside  of  me,  and 
view  my  opinions,  together  with  their  most  secret 
occasions,  from  the  standpoint  of  others." 

But  with  all  his  efforts,  ho  could  not  wholly  free 
his  mind  from  bias,  and  this  he  himself  admits.  "  I 
do  not  find  that  any  dependence  whatever  on  my  part, 
or  that  any  inclination  before  the  investigation,  deprives 
my  mind  of  that  receptivity  which  tries  all  the  reasons 
pro  and  con,  one  only  excepted.  The  scales  of  the 
understanding  are  not  entirely  impartial,  and  one  arm 
bearing  the  inscription.  The  hope  of  the  future,  has  a 
mechanical  advantage,  as  a  consequence  of  which  even 
light  reasons  which  fall  on  the  scale  on  that  side 
raise  speculations  of  much  greater  weight  placed  on 
the  other  scale.  This  is  the  only  inaccuracy  which  I 
cannot  well  remove,  and  which,  in  fact,  I  shall  never 
want  to  remove."  (*^) 

His  dislike  of  every  species  of  fanaticism  must  be 


1 


\ 


y 


put  in  the  same  category  with  his  opposition  to  dog- 
matism and  prejudice ;  and  the  book  just  quoted  gives 
striking    instances  of    this   aversion.     It  is   directed 
mainly  against  Swedenborg,  and  is  a  compound    of 
logic  and  ridicule  aimed  at    superstition.     He   says, 
"  I  do  not  blame  the  reader  if  instead  of  regarding  the 
ghost-seers  as  semi-citizens  of  another  world,  he  treats 
them  summarily  as  candidates  for  an  asylum,  and  thus 
relieves  himself  of  all  further  need  of  investigation." 
Whilst  he  thus  advises  others  to  deal  with  superstition 
or  fanaticism  in  a  summary  manner,  he  carried  his  own 
rule  into  practice.     A  man  who  was  generally  reliable 
once  told  him  a  ghost  story,  namely,  that  he  had  heard 
something  walk  with  a  tread  as  heavy  as  if  made  by 
iron.     Kant  coolly  asked  him  whether  he  was  willing 
to  attest  the  story  with  an  oath  ?     This  led  the  man 
to  reflection,  and  he  admitted  that  it  was  possible  that 
he  himself  had  not  heard  the  steps,  but  that  the  story 
had  been  related  to  him  by  others.     At  another  time 
J.  H.  Schoenherr,  who  had  a  peculiar  theosophy,  went 
to  Kant  to  call   his  attention   to  the  defects  of  the 
Critical   Philosophy,  and   to   reveal   to  him  his   own 
theosophic  views.     He  told  the  philosopher  that  man 
was   made    and  preserved   by  two   primitive   beings, 
namely  the  primitive  Light  and  the  primitive  "Water. 
Kant  replied,  "If  that  is  the  case,  man  ought  to  be 
able  to   live   on   light   and  water."     The  theosophist 
answered   that    this   is  possible.      The    philosopher 
advised  him  to  try  it,  and  if  he  succeeded,  to  let  his 
success  be  the  proof  of  his  theory.     It  is  said  that 
Schoenherr  did  try  it  for  some  days,  and  was  convinced 
by  the  experiment  that  his  theory  was  false. 

In  spite  of  his  desire  to  be  impartial,  he  was  too 

I  2 


THi 


\ 


116 


THE    LTFE    OF    IM MANUEL    KANT. 


POWER    OF    ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS. 


117 


i     i 


much  influenced  by  his  surroundings  to  be  entirely 
successful;  and  even  Kant  was  in  many  respects  the 
creature  of  his  age  and  a  partaker  of  its  prejudices. 
It  is  natural  that  this  should  have  been  the  case  par- 
ticularly  with  matters  which  he  had  not  made  subjects 
of  special  investigation.  Hamann,  after  the  "Kritik  " 
had  given  its  author  celebrity,  wrote,  "  Kant  is  a  man 
of  great  talents,  as  well  as  of  good  and  noble  dis- 
position, who  permits  himself  to  be  greatly  influenced 
by  prejudices,  but  who  is  not  ashamed  to  recall  and 
renounce  them  ;  it  is  only  necessary  to  give  him  time 
to  reflect.  He  rather  talks  than  hstens.  On  account 
of  his  system  and  the  fame  gained  thereby,  he  is  at 
present  the  more  ticklish  and  the  more  opinionated, 
which  you  yourself  can  easily  understand.  This  is 
not  wholly  his  fault,  but  chiefly  that  of  the  dear  pubhc ; 
therefore  he  cannot  be  blamed  for  it  altogether." 

With  all  his  liberahsm  in  religion,  he  did  not  rise 
above  the  prevalent  prejudice  against  the  Jews,  which 
is  the  more  surprising  because  Moses  Mendelssohn  was 
at  the  summit  of  his  fame,  and  Marcus  Herz,  a  Jewish 
physician  in  Berlin,  was  one  of  Kant's  favourite  pupils 
and  most  intimate  friends.     In  Konigsberg  the  pre- 
judice against  this    people  was  so  general   that  the 
Englishman  Motherby,  a  wann  friend  of  Kant,  is  said 
to  have    been  the  only  one  who  was  superior  to  it. 
"  Motherby  esteemed  in  the  Jew  the  man,  and  despised 
the  Jew  in  the  Christian."     When  Lessing's  ''  Nathan 
the  Wise  "  appeared,  Hamann  wrote,  "  Last  week  I 
read  the  first  ten  sheets  of  Nathan,  and  enjoyed  them 
exceedingly.     Kant,  who  received  them  from  Berlin, 
pronounced  them  only  the  second  part  of  '  The  Jews,' 
and  will  admit  no  hero  among  this  people.     So  fear- 


fully severe  is  our  philosophy  in  its  prejudices,  with 
all  its  tolerance  and  impartiality  !  "  Although  he  could 
not  free  himself  from  the  influence  of  his  immediate 
surroundings  respecting  ordinary  affairs  and  questions 
of  the  day,  it  was  different  with  philosophical  questions ; 
in  their  investigation  he  was  remarkably  successful  in 
freeing  himself  from  the  influence  of  authority  and  of 
his  own  preferences.  As  a  philosopher,  he  was  im- 
pelled by  the  love  of  truth,  and  everywhere  it  was  the 
only  object  of  his  search. 

In  power  of  analysis  Aristotle  and  Kant  have  a 
pre-eminence  which  is  almost  solitary ;  and  it  is  this 
power  which  contributed  so  largely  to  the  influence  of 
the  one  in  Greek  and  the  other  in  German  philosophy. 
It  would  be  interesting  to  draw  a  parallel  between 
Kant  and  Aristotle,  on  the  one  hand,  and  between  the 
German  metaphysician  and  Plato,  on  the  other,  for 
Kant  united  prominent  characteristics  of  both ;  though 
it  would  be  unjust  to  the  Greek  philosophers  not  to 
admit  that  in  some  respects  he  was  surpassed  by  Plato 
and  in  others  by  Aristotle.  While  there  is  much  in 
Kant  which  suggests  the  idealistic  philosopher  of  the 
Greeks,  there  is  also  much  which  suggests  the  mar- 
vellous analytical  power  of  the  great  Peripatetic  philo- 
sopher. Kant  of  course  applies  this  power  chiefly 
to  the  operations  of  the  mind.  He  makes  discrimina- 
tions where  the  ordinary  understanding  sees  no  dis- 
tinctions, and  where  even  speculative  minds  find  it 
difficult  to  follow  him  in  his  dissecting  and  dis- 
tinguishing processes.  Hamann  calls  his  acumen 
(Scharfsinn)  his  "  evil  demon."  He  readily  analyzed 
his  own  thoughts  and  those  of  others ;  and  in  his 
critical   works   this   power   becomes  very   evident   in 


w^ 


I 


/ 


118 


THE    MFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


testing  arguments  and  in  exposing  fallacies.  (")  The 
extreme  difficulty  in  following  tim  in  his  distinctions  has 
been  the  occasion  of  many  conflicting  views  respecting 
his  meaning.  It  is  said  that  the  power  which  forsook 
him  last  was  that  of  analyzing  thoughts  and  tracing 
them  to  their  sources. 

His  power  of  synthesis  is  closely  connected  with  the 
analytic.  In  following  thought  from  its  genesis  to  its 
ultimate  consequences,  he  observed  close  analogies  as 
well  as  nice  distinctions  ;  but  the  synthetic  power  is  less 
apparent  in  his  works  than  the  analytic.  The  former 
might  have  been  more  manifest  if  he  had  retained  his 
mental  vigour  long  enough  to  complete  the  last  work 
on  which  he  laboured,  which  was  intended  to  embody 
and  complete,  in  a  final  system,  the  result  of  all  his 
speculations.  As  that  was  not  finished,  he  gave  the 
world  preparations  for  metaphysics,  not  the  system 
itself  But  according  to  the  ''  Kritik,"  a  complete 
scientific  synthesis  is  impossible;  for  while  we  may  use 
the  ideas  of  God,  of  the  Spirit,  and  of  the  Cosmos, 
practically,  we  dare  not  use  them  speculatively  or 
scientifically.  We  have  phenomena  in  nature,  and  we  can 
discover  their  laws,  and  these  are  objects  of  science ; 
but  the  idea  of  a  cosmos,  the  synthesis  of  all  natural 
laws  and  phenomena,  is  speculatively  impossible.  His 
conclusion  respecting  man  is  the  same.  Thought  and 
its  laws  are  subjects  for  philosophical  inquiry ;  but  the 
idea  of  the  spirit,  in  which  these  inhere,  while  prac- 
tically very  useful,  cannot  be  used  speculatively.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  idea  of  God,  the  final  and  absolute 
synthesis.  For  practical  purposes  this  idea  is  necessary ; 
but  speculatively  it,  as  well  as  that  of  the  cosmos  and 
that  of  the  spirit,  is  involved  in  inextricable  difficulties 


HUMOUR. 


119 


and  in  contradictions.  The  very  conclusions  of  the 
Critical  Philosophy  thus  deny  the  possibility  of  a 
complete  synthesis;  it  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  its 
strength  is  seen  chiefly  in  its  analytic  processes.  Not 
only  is  this  power  of  analysis  seen  in  the  separation 
of  heterogeneous  elements,  but  also  in  distinguishing 
those  which  are  analogous  but  not  alike.  It  is  this 
which  enabled  Kant  to  detect  error  so  readily,  and 
which  made  him  the  great  critic.  However  much 
ardent  Kantians  may  resist  the  conclusion,  the  final 
verdict  will  probably  be,  that  the  Critical  Philosopher 
was  greater  in  what  he  destroyed  than  in  what  he 
scientifically  constructed. 

With  his  quick  perception  of  analogies  and  contrasts, 
it  is  natural  that  he  should  have  had  a  keen  perception 
of  the  ludicrous.  He  quickly  observed  the  incongruous 
and  the  paradoxical,  and  they  furnished  him  sport 
and  relaxation.  In  his  books  and  conversations  we 
find  him  frequently  leaving  his  serious  contemplations, 
to  ridicule  foibles  and  follies,  and  to  promote  cheer- 
fulness with  his  pleasantry.  His  book  against 
Swedenborg  is  the  most  striking  illustration  of  his 
union  of  profound  and  serious  contemplation  with 
humour  and  ridicule :  and  the  union  is  so  complete 
that  there  is  danger  of  taking  the  one  for  the  other. 
Bouterwek  suggests  that  it  might  be  worth  while  to 
show  how  many  thoughts  used  sportively  by  Kant 
were  regarded  by  his  disciples  as  scientific  judgments 
which  they  seriously  commented  and  illustrated.  He 
was  particularly  fond  of  humorous  works,  and  in  the 
last  years  of  his  life  he  read  in  Lichtenberg's  books 
and  marked  the  passages  which  specially  pleased  him. 
His  praise  of  satire  was  extravagant,  and  in  speaking. 


•* 


4 


120 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


ORIGINALITY. 


121 


of  its  influence  he  declared  *'  that  no  metaphysician 
could  do  as  much  good  in  the  world  as  Erasmus  of 
Rotterdam  and  the  celebrated  Montaigne  of  France 
had  accomplished.  He  also  recommended  the  *  Essays ' 
I  of  the  latter  for  constant  reading ;  he  himself  could 
repeat  many  passages  from  them."  In  the  department 
of  belles-lettres  he  read  satirical  books  with  a  marked 
preference,  such  as  Swift's  works,  Butler's  ''  Hudibras," 
and  "Don  Quixote."  But  he  rarely  laughed,  and 
admitted  that  this  was  a  defect  in  his  nature.  He 
thought  laughing  a  blessing  for  children,  as  it  tends 
to  make  their  disposition  more  cheerful.  Whenever 
persons  indulged  in  a  laugh,  he  wanted  it  to  be 
harmless  and  good-natured,  not  at  the  expense  of 
one  who  was  wounded  thereby,  though  he  admitted 
that  one  may  be  the  occasion  of  a  laugh  without  being 
laughed  at.  Concerning  empty  and  silly  laughter,  he 
said,  "  A  mechanical  laugh  is  superficial  and  makes 
society  insipid ; "  but  he  also  added,  "  He  who  does 
not  laugh  at  all  is  morose  or  pedantic." 

Kant  had  a  keen  appreciation  of  wit  and  was  him- 
self witty.  "  His  wit  was  easy,  merry,  ingenious. 
There  were  lightning  flashes  of  wit,  which  played  in 
the  serene  heavens  and  illuminated  his  lectures  as  well 
as  his  conversations."  In  his  ''  Anthropology  "  he  de- 
fines wit  as  the  power  that  couples  and  assimilates  hete- 
rogeneous ideas  which,  according  to  the  law  of  asso- 
ciation, are  remote  from  each  other  f  it  is  the  peculiar 
ability  to  liken  things  which  are  diverse.  He  says, 
"  It  is  agreeable,  pleasing,  and  cheering,  to  discover 
similarities  among  things  dissimilar,  and  thus  to  give, 
as  wit  does,  the  understanding  material  to  make  its 
ideas  general."     Wit  is  play,  judgment  is  work.     "  Wit 


f. 


f 


is  rather  a  flower  of  youth ;  judgment  more  the  ripe 
fruit  of  age."  Being  a  special  talent,  it  cannot  be 
learned  in  the  schools.     In  puns,  wit  is  superficial. 

In  speaking  of  his  physical  condition,  his  power  of 

abstraction,   which  enabled  him  to  conquer  pain,  was 

mentioned.     In   his    critical   works   it   is    seen   in    a 

marvellous    degree ;     and    in    abstract   metaphysical 

speculations,   where   others    are   lost   in   inextricable 

confusion,  he  is  perfectly  at  home.     But  at  the  same 

time  we  have  seen  that  he  was  frequently  subject  to 

distractions,  especially  in  his  lectures.     Sometimes  in 

the  development  of  a  subject  he  lost  sight  of  the  main 

thought ;  then  he  would  suddenly  end  the  digression, 

and  again  resume  the  consideration  of  that  thought. 

This  wandering  in  his  lectures  made  it  difficult  to  follow 

him ;  and  there  are  similar  digressions  in  his  works 

which  increase  their  obscurity.     In  his  letter  to  Hufe- 

land   he   states   that   his   thoughts   were    subject    to 

distractions  which  were  very  painful  to  him ;  and  that 

while    speaking    he   would    sometimes    ask    himself 

quietly  or  his  hearers,  "  Where  was  I  ?     From  what 

point  did  I  start?  "     He  thinks  that  this  tendency  to 

distraction  may  be  somewhat  diminished,  but  that  with 

all  possible  efforts  it  cannot  be  wholly  avoided. 

If  greatness  is  measured  by  originality  and  by  the 
contribution  of  new  thoughts  to  the  stock  of  human 
knowledge,  Kant  must  be  placed  very  high.  **  Every- 
where he  wanted  to  go  his  own  way."  This  originality 
is  seen  in  his  methods  as  well  as  in  his  thoughts ;  and 
even  when  he  reproduces  the  views  of  others,  Kant  is 
seen  in  them.  Never  satisfied  with  looking  at  the 
surface  of  things,  but  ever  striving  to  penetrate  objects 
and  to  get  behind  them^we  find  that  every  subject 


,, u_ 


f 


122 


THK    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEIi    KANT. 


I 
I 


wliicli  he  considers,  receives  the  peculiar  impress  of 
his  spirit.  By  giving  the  leaven  of  his  own  mind  to  a 
subject,  thus  making  his  discussion  of  it  thoroughly- 
Kantian,  he  made  his  books  so  suggestive  and  his 
philosophy  such  a  revolutionary  power.  His  originality 
is  especially  seen  in  his  cosmogony,  his  moral  philo- 
sophy, and  in  his  SBSthetical  views  in  the  '*  Critique 
of  the  Judgment;"  and  the  "  Kritik  "  teems  with  ori- 
ginal thoughts,  such  as  the  distinction  between  sensa- 
tion and  understanding,  the  views  of  time  and  space, 
and  the  categories,  while  the  method  of  the  book,  as 
well  as  the  subject,  is  altogether  his  own.  Whether 
we  consider  the  destructive  elements  in  the  speculative 
portions  of  the  book,  or  the  constructive  elements  in 
its  more  practical  parts  and  in  his  ethical  works,  this 
originality  is  striking.  It  is  not  surprising  that  with 
his  creative  mind  he  produced  so  grand  an  epoch  in 
philosophy. 

The  superiority  of  Kant's  mind  is  universally 
admitted.  While  some  of  its  powers  were  more  marked 
than  others,  and  are  worthy  of  special  mention,  there 
was,  nevertheless,  rather  a  union  of  excellencies  than 
the  solitary  prominence  of  a  single  faculty.  The 
philosopher  Herbart  says  of  Kant's  mental  charac- 
teristics :  *' With  this  depth,  so  much  learning;  with 
this  extreme  delicacy  of  moral  feeling,  so  much  clear, 
sound  understanding  ;  with  this  ability  to  grasp  what-* 
ever  is  greatest  and  remotest,  such  great  calmness  of 
mind,  such  accuracy  in  details,  such  moderation,  such 
critical  self-control !  "  W.  von  Humboldt,  who  was 
induced  by  Schiller  to  study  the  Critical  Philosophy, 
was  astonished  at  the  greatness  of  intellect  revealed 
in  it,   and  says  of  its  author,  "  Kant  undertook  and 


UNION   OF    EXCELLENCIES. 


123 


I: 


accomplished  the  greatest  work  for  which  the  philo- 
sophical reason  will  probably  ever  be  indebted  to  one 
man.  He  tested  and  sifted  the  entire  philosophical 
process  in  such  a  way  as  obliged  him  to  meet  the 
philosophers  of  all  times  and  nations ;  he  measured, 
limited,  and  smoothed  the  basis  of  this  process ;  he 
destroyed  the  false  structures  built  on  this  basis.  And 
after  completing  this  work,  he  estabhshed  principles 
whose  philosophical  analysis  often  agreed  with 
common  sense,  which  had  frequently  been  led  astray 
or  ignored  in  the  former  systems.  In  the  truest 
sense,  he  led  philosophy  back  into  the  depth  of  the 
human  heart.  In  the  fullest  sense,  he  possessed 
everything  which  characterizes  the  great  thinker,  and 
united  in  himself  gifts  which  ordinarily  seem  to  be 
opposed  to  each  other  ;  namely,  profundity  and  acumen, 
a  dialectic  power  which  was  probably  never  surpassed, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  did  not  depreciate  that  truth 
which  the  dialectic  process  could  not  discover  ;  and  he 
also  had  that  philosophic  genius  which  spins  out  and 
holds  together,  by  means  of  the  unity  of  the  idea,  the 
threads  of  an  extensive  web  of  conceptions  running  in 
all  directions,  a  genius  without  which  there  can  be 
no  philosophical  system."  Jean  Paul  says,  "  Kant 
is  no  planet,  but  an  entire  solar  system  radiating 
light." 

While  the  intellectual  character  and  development  of 
Kant  are  full  of  interest  to  the  student  of  the  mind, 
there  are  some  psychological  facts  which  are  worthy 
of  special  study.  It  is  a  strange  fact  that  in  the  course 
of  time  his  mind  became  so  wholly  absorbed  by  his  own 
philosophy  that,  as  a  seeming  penalty,  he  became 
unable  to  appreciate  the  speculations  of  others.     The 


124 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


supreme  concentration  of  his  mind  on  the  "  Kritik  "  and 
the  works  which  followed,  made  him  lose  himself  in 
his  own  reflections,  so  that  he  could  not  find  his  way 
out,  and  at  last  it  became  impossible  for  him  to  place 
himself  on  the  standpoint  of  other  thinkers.  This  fact 
was  too  striking  and  too  surprising  to  escape  the 
notice  of  his  friends,  and  Jachmann  wrote,  "  Every 
person  will  admit  that  Kant's  intellectual  powers  were 
original  in  the  highest  degree,  and  if  ever  a  philosopher 
went  a  new  and  untrodden  way,  it  was  Kant.  I  must, 
however,  make  a  few  remarks  about  the  originality  of 
his  intellect.  The  richness  of  his  own  mind  in  thought, 
and  the  habitual  ease  with  which  he  drew  all  philo- 
sophical ideas  from  the  inexhaustible  fountain  of  his 
own  reason,  brought  it  to  pass  that  at  last  Kant 
scarcely  comprehended  any  one  except  himself. 
Understand  me  correctly ;  I  speak  of  abstract  philo- 
sophical conceptions.  He  who  was  an  original  thinker 
in  the  most  peculiar  sense  of  the  word,  found  everything 
in  himself,  and  thus  lost  the  ability  to  find  anything  in 
others.  At  the  very  time  when  his  mental  powers 
had  attained  their  highest  development,  namely,  when 
he  worked  out  his  Critical  Philosophy,  nothing  was 
more  difficult  for  him  than  to  appreciate  the  system  of 
another.  Even  the  writings  of  his  opponents  he  could 
understand  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty,  since  he 
found  it  impossible  to  leave,  for  any  length  of  time, 
his  own  system  of  thought.  He  was  aware  of  this 
difficulty,  and  therefore  generally  requested  his  friends 
to  read  other  systems  and  commimicate  to  him  the 
relation  of  their  principal  contents  to  bis  own  views. 
The  consciousness  of  his  inability  to  comprehend  views 
foreign  to  his  own  may  account  for  the  fact  that  he 


APPRECIATION    OF    OTHER    SYSTEMS. 


125 


left  it  to  his  disciples  and  friends  to  defend  his  philo- 
sophy against  the  attacks  of  his  opponents." 

Kant    makes    repeated    reference    to   this    strange 
effect   of   his   long  introspection    and  of  the   intense" 
concentration   of  his    mind   on  his    own   philosophy. 
When  he*  was  sixty-six  years  old,  he  wrote  to   his 
friend  Herz  that  in  his  advanced  age  he  cannot  well 
succeed  in  understanding  purely  speculative  thought, 
foreign  to  himself,  but  is  obliged  to  let  himself  go  his 
own  way  in  the  track  he  has  followed  for  many  years. 
Four  years  later,  he  says  that  he  can  think  well  yet, 
but   that  he  finds  it   difficult   to   appreciate  another 
person's  train  of  thought,  and  attributes  this  inability 
partly  to  his  physical  condition.     He  asserts  that  he 
does   not  understand  what  Maimon  means  with   his 
proposed    improvement   of    the   Critical   Philosophy, 
and  that  he  must  leave  it  to  others  to  refute  his  views. 
When  Kant  was  only  sixty-one,  four  years  after  the 
"  Kritik  "  appeared,  Hamann  wrote  to  Herder,  "  Kant 
is  too  full  of  his  own  system  to  judge  yours  impar- 
tially." For  many  years  he  was  so  absorbed  in  evolving 
his   own   philosophy,  that  he   had   neither  time   nor 
inclination   to  study  other    systems ;    and  the   result 
was  an  unusual  intellectual  exclusiveness  and  isolation. 
After   he    had   elaborated   the    critical    system,   that 
community  of  thought  which  generally  exists  among 
scholars,  ceased  in  his  case;    he  could  still   give  to 
others,  but  he  could  take  their  peculiar  views  only  by 
doing  violence  to  himself.     Rink  states  that  after  his 
great  works  were  published,  Kant  knew  what  other 
thinkers  had  produced  only  through  fragments,  and 
that  consequently  he  did  not  properly  estimate  their 
views,   not     even   in    those    cases   where    he     held 


I     i 


126 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


notions  which,  if  developed,  would  have  led  to  the 
same  conclusions.  Kuno  Fischer  says,  "  In  general, 
the  accuracy  of  Kant's  apprehension  of  systems  foreign 
to  his  own  is  questionable.  He  was  so  occupied  with 
his  own  thoughts  that  he  found  it  difficult  to  appreciate 
the  spirit  of  another  philosophy  ;  in  old  age  he  found  it 
altogether  impossible. ' ' 

Authors  are  generally  desirous  of  learning  what  is 
thought  of  their  works,  and  they  frequently  find  the 
criticism  of  scholars  suggestive  of  improvements; 
but  after  the  ''  Kritik  "  appeared,  Kant,  as  a  rule,  did 
not  even  read  what  was  written  for  or  against  his 
views.  That  this  was  not  the  result  of  indifference  to 
the  influence  of  his  philosophy,  or  to  the  relation  sus- 
tained to  it  by  philosophical  thinkers,  is  proved  by 
his  letters  and  his  sensitiveness  with  reference  to 
adverse  criticism.  Sometimes  he  made  arrangements 
to  have  his  friends  reply  to  the  attacks  on  his  system, 
and  he  was  anxious  that  the  answers  should  not  be  too 
mild.  But  his  own  speculations  absorbed  his  atten- 
tion too  much,  to  consider  seriously  the  confirmation 
or  refutation  of  his  works  by  reviewers  :  and  after  the 
'*  Kritik"  became  celebrated,  it  was  the  occasion  of  so 
many  works,  both  favourable  and  unfavourable,  that 
it  would  have  consumed  entirely  too  much  time  if  he 
had  read  all  of  them.  Even  if  Kant  had  taken  a 
deeper  interest  in  the  discussions  occasioned  by  his 
philosophy,  it  would  not  have  been  surprising  if  he  had 
become  tired  of  the  extensive  Kantian  literature  pro- 
duced between  1786  and  the  close  of  the  century. 
His  confidence  in  the  principles  of  his  philosophy  and 
in  their  final  success  may  have  made  him  less  concerned 
about  the  opinions  of  cotemporaries.     And  it  should 


I'  I 


I  ' 


iU 


h 


■ 


B 


NEGJiECT   OF    PHILOSOPHICAL  WORKS. 


127 


also  be  considered  that  he  was  incessantly  labouring 
to  complete  the  works  he  had  planned,  and  that  atten- 
tion to  other  matters  might  have  interfered  with  this 
aim.  Hamann  took  a  deeper  interest  in  the  relation 
of  scholars  to  the  Kantian  philosophy  than  its  author. 
At  one  time  Kant  sent  him  three  publications  against 
his  philosophy,  which  he  had  not  thought  it  worth 
while  to  read  himself ;  so,  as  he  said,  he  turned  them 
over  to  "  the  inquisitive  old  man."  Kant  was  vexed 
that  they  had  come  to  him  without  a  letter,  and 
because  he  had  been  obliged  to  pay  the  postage. 

The  fact  that  Kant  wove  a  web  around  himself, 
which  he  could  not  break,  and  thus  imprisoned  him- 
self in  his  own  system,  enables  us  to  understand  ex- 
pressions which  otherwise  seem  inexplicable.  Hippel 
makes  this  statement,  "  Kant  repeatedly  said,  I  do 
not  understand  the  catechism,  but  I  understood  it  for- 
merly." (")  And  he  adds,  "  Kant  also  said  that  he  could 
not  understand  Montesquieu;"  which  is  the  more  re- 
markable because  he  had  been  a  favourite  author.  But 
not  only  did  he,  later  in  life,  fail  to  appreciate  the  authors^ 
he  read ;  he  never  made  the  study  of  the  philosophical 
works  of  his  predecessors  such  a  speciality  as  his  pre- 
ference for  metaphysics  would  lead  one  to  expect.  In 
his  works  he  repeatedly  speaks  of  other  systems  of 
philosophy  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  impression 
on  some  of  his  cotemporaries  that  he  depreciated  them 
for  the  purpose  of  exalting  his  own,  a  charge  which  is 
no  doubt  unjust.  He  admitted  that  he  understood 
neither  Spinoza  nor  Jacobi's  explanation  of  his  sys- 
tem ;  (")  and  he  also  acknowledged  that  he  had  never 
studied  Spinoza  carefully.  (*^)  As  he  habitually  went 
to  his  own   mind  for  his  principles,  and   evolved  his 


r 


M 


I 


/ 


it 


128 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMifANUEL    KANT. 


system  from  them,  it  is  not  strange  that  he  sometimes 
imagined  a  thought  to  be  original,  when  the  thought 
itself,  or  at  least  its  germ,  had  already  been  given  by 
another.     Kuno  Fischer,  who    has    carefully   studied 
Kant's  relation  to  his  predecessors,   and    cannot    be 
charged  with    a   want  of  admiration   for   him,    says, 
*'He   knew   Leibnitz    only  after   the   manner   of  the 
Wolfians,  and   Spinoza,  as  it  were,  not  at  all.     The 
scholastics  were  outside  of  the  range  of  his  studies. 
He   constantly   apprehended    and   judged    the    Greek 
systems    according    to   their    most    general    charac- 
teristics ;  and  even  in  these  he  frequently  misses  the 
mark,    Plato  and  Aristotle   not  excepted.     When   he 
cites  the  doctrines  of  the  ancients,  he  groups  them 
more  to  suit  his  convenience  than  according  to  their 
peculiar  order.*'     While  this  neglect  of  other  philoso- 
phies may  have  prevented  him  from  doing  them  justice, 
it  did  not  seriously  interfere  with  the  development  of 
his  own  system.     The  writer  just  quoted  adds,  "  We 
mention  this  defect  once  for  all,  in  order  not  to  revert 
to  it  again.     As  far  as  the  merit  and  the  philosophy  of 
Kant  are  concerned,  it  is  of  little  importance,  and  really 
of  no  influence.     In  a  certain  sense  it  is  even  an  ad- 
vantage to  his  cause.     The  task  which  Kant  pursued 
had  to  be  accomplished  through  his  own  efforts,  and 
the    most    thorough    knowledge    of    the    preceding 
philosophies  could  not  have  aided  him  in  its  perform- 
ance."    In  his  works  Kant  gives  a  summary  of  the 
history  of  philosophy,  which  he  used  in  his  lectures ; 
it  is  extremely   meagre,   occupying  only  about  eight 
pages. 

Kant  was  too  deeply  interested  in  individuals  and 
nations  to  neglect  politics,  and  in  his  old  age  he  was 


iH 


I 


POLlTICAIi   VIEWS. 


129 


engaged  in  planning  a  book  on  the  subject.  (")     From 
his  views  of  the  freedom  and  dignity  of  man,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  he   would  oppose  all  forms  of   despotism. 
But  he  did  not  think  a  mere  revolution  capable  of 
freeing  a  people  from  tyranny ;  for  while  it  may  re- 
move  personal  despotism  and  many  other  evils,  it  can- 
not change  the  mode  of  thinking.     Unless  the  masses 
are  enhghtened,  there  can  be  no  real  freedom;  new 
prejudices  will  be  added  to  the  old  ones,  and  the  people 
will  be  under  their  dominion.     The  freedom  of  the 
press  will,  however,  promote  the  needed  enhghtenment. 
He  sympathized  with  the  American  colonies  in  their 
war  with  England,  and  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
French  Revolution,  from  which    he   expected  great 
benefits,  and  which  he  defended  zealously,  even  when 
■  it  was  very  unpopular  in  K5nigsberg.     Although  his 
advocacy  of  that  cause  gave  offence,  he  was  too  much 
accustomed  to  have  his  own  way  to  let  the  opinions 
of  others  interfere  seriously  with  the  free  expression 
of  his  own  in  company.     For  a  long  time  even  the 
atrocities  perpetrated  in  France   did    not    alter  his 
opinion,   and    he     still   advocated   the   cause   of   the 
Revolution  when  Burke,  and  many  other  of  its  early 
friends,  saw  and  denounced  the  pernicious  tendencies 

of  the  movement. 

Kant  based  his  poUtical  views  largely  on  Montes- 
quieu, and  advocated  the  strict  separation  of  the 
legislative,  the  judicial,  and  the  executive  functions. 
"  He  denounced  Pitt's  course,  because  he  believed  that 
this  statesman  was  promoting  the  encroachment  of  the 
legislative  on  the  executive  power,  and  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  declare  that  his  policy  tended  to  barbarism. 
In  his  opinion,  the  people  ought  to  have  a  voice  in 


V. 


I, 


/ 


i/ 


I 


X 

^ 


i 


^ 


'•f- 


/> 


V-- 


^^■-   ^rr^- 


\ 


\ 


130 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


the  legislative  body,  and  for  this  reason  he  favoured 
the  American  colonists  in  their  dispute  with  England. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  he  hoped 
to  see  the  realization  of  the  desired  separation  of  the 
three  functions  of  government ;  when  his  confidence 
was,  however,  at  last  shaken,  he  opposed  the  new 
despotism  as  anarchy  allied  with  atrocious  passion  and 
bloody  barbarity.  After  this  his  tone  was  changed, 
and  he  defended  more  vigorously  the  prerogatives  of 
rulers,  and  spoke  less  emphatically  in  favour  of  the 
rights  of  subjects.  Formerly  he  had  spoken  of  subjects 
as  if  they  had  rights  which  they  might  defend  against 
rulers ;  now  his  language  implied  that  all  opposition 
to  the  existing  authorities  is  wrong ;  formerly  he  had 
defended  the  Revolution  with  a  degree  of  passion ;  now 
he  spoke  of  revolutionists  as  if  they  were  criminals 
and  even  traitors;  and  if  there  had  been  protests 
against  his  former  views  on  the  part  of  royalists,  now 
he  met  with  opposition  from  the  advocates  of  freedom. 
In  his  brochure  on  Eternal  Peace,  published  in  1795, 
Kant  wants  to  introduce  his  exalted  moral  principles 
into  politics,  both  in  national  and  international  affairs. 
In  legislation  as  well  as  in  the  execution  of  the  laws, 
the  controlling  principle  ought  to  be  right,  instead  of 
expediency.  Freedom  and  equality  should  prevail 
because  they  are  right,  and  selfishness  or  happiness 
should  not  be  the  motive  of  their  advocacy.  Kant 
holds  that  the  Categorical  Imperative  is  the  supreme 
law  in  politics  as  well  as  in  private  morality ;  and  ho 
gives  this  maxim  to  the  pohticians  who  seek  to  pro- 
mote  eternal  peace :  "  Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of 
the  Practical  Reason  and  its  righteousness,  and  the  end 
you  seek  (the  blessing  of  eternal  peace)  shall  be  added 


hf 


1 


/  K 


IMAGINATION. 


131 


unto  you."  In  order  that  war  may  be  avoided,  he 
advocates  the  formation  of  a  federation  of  states 
{foediis  pacificum)  for  the  settlement  of  the  disputes 
which  may  arise  between  them.  While  at  first  only  a 
few  states  may  join  this  federation  or  league,  its  aim 
should  be  to  extend  its  influence  until  it  embraces  all 
states,  and  thus  puts  an  end  to  war.  He  attaches  less 
importance  to  the  form  of  government  than  to  the 
supremacy  of  law,  the  real  sovereign  to  which  the  ruler 
and  the  ruled  are  alike  subject.  This  pamphlet  was 
very  popular,  and  was  translated  into  several  foreign 

languages,  — 

Kant  was  not  a  poet,  though  he  composed  a  few  \ 
blank  verses  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  colleagues 
in  the  university.     Their  poetic  value  is  small ;  they 
contain  no  flights  of  imagination,  and  reveal  neither 
enthusiasm  nor  inspiration.     They  are  didactic  com- 
positions which  present  good  moral  thoughts  in  the 
form  of  blank  verse.  (")     It  would,  however,  be  a  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  imagination  and  enthusiasm  were 
foreign  to  his  nature,  an  impression  which  is  favoured 
by  his  cold  metaphysical  works.     In  old  age,  after  he 
had  encased  himself  in  his  philosophy,  this  was  largely 
the  case,  though  even  then  some  subjects,  especially 
moral  ones,  kindled  his  enthusiasm.    In  his  early  man- 
hood   there  were   many  evidences  of  an  enthusiastic 
nature,    though    his   admirable   self-control   and   his 
effort  to  subject  everything  to  reason  might  interfere 
with   its  free   exercise.     His  fondness  for  the  Latin 
poets  leads  us  to  suspect  a  strong  imagination  and  its 
special  culture  until  he  entered  the  university.     While 
he  was  afraid  to  give  a  loose  rein  to  the  imagination 
when  advanced  in  years,  in  his  earlier  productions, 

K  2 


V 


I 


i 

<  \ 

:  <     1 


M 


;i 


132 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


especially  in   his  cosmogony,  this  faculty  sometimes 
gets  the  mastery  over  dry  theories  and  mathematical 
calculations.     Aside  from  the  Latin  classics,  however, 
his   studies  were  mostly  such  as  were  calculated  to 
curb  the  imagination ;  and  neither  the  Wolfian  philo- 
sophy, in  which  he  was  trained,  nor  the  one  which 
he  himself  developed,  was  calculated  to  promote  its 
cultivation.      Bouterwek  writes,  "  It  is   certain   that 
this   speculative  mind,  with  its    strivings    after  pure 
knowledge,   was  afraid   of    the   imagination   and   its 
inventions,  just  as  if  he  had  been  a  Wolfian."     In  his 
efforts  to   attain  mathematical   certainty   he   demon- 
strated the  imagination  away  ;  but  the  dry,  logical, 
unimaginative  Kant  of  later  years  was  not  a  product  of 
nature,  but  of  discipline. 

What  has  been  said  of  his  imagination  is  essentially 
true  also  of  his  emotional  nature.     Kant  feared  that 
feeling  might  interfere  with  the  working  of  the  intellect, 
and  prevent  the  attainment  of  that  pure  knowledge 
which   he   sought.     Even  in    morals  and  religion   he 
treats    the    emotions,    those    of    a    nobler    kind   not 
excepted,  as  a  hindrance  rather  than   a  help.     The 
emotional  religious  influences  of  his  youth  and  the 
general  sentimentality  of  the  times  no  doubt  promoted 
this  depreciation  of  feeling.     He  saw  the  injurious  in- 
fluences  of  extravagance  and  fanaticism,  and  liked  to 
present  the    antidotes   to   the    evils    of   the   day  as 
strikingly  as  possible ;  it  is  no  wonder,  then,  if  one 
extreme  led  him  to  another.     It  was  an  age  fond  of 
extravagant  expressions  of  love  and  friendship,  an  age 
of  kisses  and  sighs  and  tears ;  and  he  was  a  mortal 
enemy  of  all  afl*ectation  and   sentimentality.     His  fear 
of  the  influence  of  the  emotions  was  also  promoted  by 


,fl) 


J 


J 


f 


] 


COLD   INTELLECTUALITY. 


133 


the  fact  that  he  regarded  the  prevalent  errors  in 
philosophy  as  largely  the  product  of  prejudice  and 
feeling,  and  their  removal  as  possible  only  through 
pure  reason. 

His  writings  impressed  some  of  his  contemporaries 
with  the  belief  that  Kant  was  heartless ;  and  one  of 
them  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  his  letter  to 
Hufeland  he   stated  that  he  had  succeeded  in  so  com- 
pletely separating  his  head  from  his  chest   that  the 
oppression  of  the  latter  does  not  affect  the  former. 
This  was    a   revelation  to    him    respecting    the  head 
products  of  Kant,  and  in  a  letter  he  says,  *'  Let  us 
rejoice,    my  dear  friend,  that  in  our  case   head  and 
heart   still    go   together."     This    separation    of  the 
head  from  the  heart  is  striking  even  in  works  where 
it  might  be  expected  that  prominence  would  be  given 
to  the  feelings.     Soon  after  Kant's   death  an  author 
wrote,  "  The  cold  understanding  was  the  ruling  power 
in  Kant's  unwearied   mind ;  he   did   not   even   trust 
enthusiasm  in  those  cases  where  a  noble  emotion,  in- 
stead of  depressing,    arouses  the   power   of  thought. 
Respecting  the  dignity  of  man,  Kant  felt  a  powerful 
inspiration  only  when   some  moral  interest  was   con- 
nected with  the  pure  contemplations.  .  .  .  All  violent 
emotions,  in  the  possession  of  which  many  think  them- 
selves great,  had  something  petty  in  Kant's  eyes."  And 
he  adds,  "  Not  a  little  did  this  intellectual  coldness 
contribute  to  the  imposing  authority  which  the  Kantian 
philosophy  gained  among  the  cold  Germans."  (^^) 

In  considering  this  subject,  however,  we  must  dis- 
criminate between  the  utterances  of  the  youthful  and 
the  aged  Kant,  both  as  found  in  his  lectures  and  in  his 
books.   Knowing  his  own  later  aversion  to  enthusiasm, 


\ 


'I 

i 


t 


V 


134 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMAXUEL    KANT. 


it  seems  hardly  possible  that  he  could  have  been  the 
author  of  the  following :  "  "Whoever  is  more  povverfullv 
inspired  by  a  moral  emotion  as  a  principle  than  others, 
on  account  of  their  cold  and  often  ignoble  heart,  are 
able  to  appreciate,   is,  in  their  estimation,  an  enthu- 
siast;" and  this  is  followed  by  the  declaration  that 
without    enthusiasm    nothing    great   has    ever   been 
accomplished.  («•)     This  was  written  when  he  was  forty, 
a  period  in  which    many  of  his  utterances  indicate 
emotion  as  well  as  enthusiasm.     Therefore,  while  the 
marked  predominance  of  his  intellectual  faculties   at 
last  largely  suppressed  the  emotional  element,  there  is 
abundant  proof  that  by  nature  Kant  was  not  lacking  in 
feeling.     As  is  usual  in  natures  which  are  emotional 
and  yet  intellectually  profound,  we  find  in  him  a  conflict 
between  the  head  and  the  heart,  between  the  longings 
of  the  one  and  the  demonstrations  of  the  other  f  and 
this  gives  us  the  key  tp  his  distinction  between  the 
speculative  and  the  practical  reason.     Though  so  wary 
of  impulses,  he  found  in  his  own  nature  those  which  he 
could  not  suppress,  in  spite  of  all  the  negative  conclu- 
sions of  his  philosophy.     When  his  dogmatism  was 
shaken,  he  found  it  impossible  to  rest  in  scepticism  • 
and  the  demand  for  a  scientific  basis  for  hope  and 
aspiration  was  the  mighty  impulse  which  produced  the 
Critical   Philosophy.     In   his  cold  Critiques   of  Pure 
Keason  and  of  Judgment,  Kant  is  only  partially  seen  • 
in  other  works  he  deals  with  flesh  and  blood  as  well  as 
with  skeletons.     How  can  we  account  for  the  marvel- 
lous   enthusiasm   with    which    lie    inspired   his    best 
students?      The    spark    which    kindled    a    flame   in 
others  was  communicated  from  his  own  being;  such 
neat  could  never  have  emanated  from  an   iceberg 


1 


ENTHUSIASM. 


135 


Jachmann  states  that  in  his  lectures  on  morality- 
Kant  was  not  merely  a  speculative  philosopher,  but 
also  a  spirited  orator  who  moved  the  heart  while  he 
satisfied  the  mind.  "  It  produced  a  heavenly  rapture 
to  hear  this  pure  and  sublime  morality  coming  from 
the  lips  of  its  author  with  such  powerful  philosophic 
eloquence.  O  how  often  he  moved  us  to  tears  !  How 
often  he  powerfully  agitated  our  hearts,  and  lifted  our 
spirits  and  our  emotions  out  of  the  trammels  of  a 
selfish  lovf  of  pleasure  to  a  high  realization  of  pure 
freedom,  to  unconditional  subjection  to  the  law  of 
reason,  and  to  the  sublime  emotion  of  disinterested 
duty  !  At  such  times  the  immortal  philosopher  seemed 
to  be  inspired  by  a  divine  power,  and  he  also  inspired 
us  who  listened  to  him  full  of  admiration.  Surely  his 
hearers  never  left  one  of  his  lectures  on  morality  with- 
out being  made  better.''  The  same  enthusiastic 
admirer  mentions  Kant's  animation  during  conversa- 
tion when  specially  interested  in  his  subject.  ''How 
often  did  Kant  speak  with  rapture  of  God's  wisdom, 
goodness,  and  power,  when  conversing  with  his  friends 
on  the  structure  of  the  world !  How  often  he  spoke 
touchingly  of  the  blessedness  of  a  future  life !  And 
here  the  heart  both  of  the  philosopher  and  the  man 
spoke,  giving  indubitable  testimony  of  his  emotions 
and  honest  convictions.  One  such  conversation  on 
astronomy,  during  which  Kant  was  constantly  inspired 
by  his  theme,  was  not  merely  enough  to  convince  every 
one  who  heard  him  that  he  believed  in  God  and 
providence,  but  it  would  also  have  changed  an  atheist 
into  a  believer."  Even  if  at  other  times  he  spoke 
coldly  and  critically  on  these  subjects,  and  though  Jach- 
mann  may  transfer  some  of  his  own  enthusiasm  to  Kant, 


V 


I, 


I 


X. 


iV 


f!,} 


iTft 


■rt 


\ 


I 


136 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


TRANSFORMATION. 


1/ 


,j 


i 


\ 


still  there  is  evidence  enough  to  show  that  there  were 
times  when  he  was  unusually  inspired  and  inspiring. 

Some  persons  laud  Kant's  speculative  philosophy  to 
the   skies    and    speak    contemptuously    of    his    moral 
system,  while  others  praise  his  moral  philosophy  and 
reject   his  speculations;    and   there  are  others,  still, 
who  form  their  opinions  of  Kant  and   his  life  mainly 
either  from  his  speculations  or  from  his  moral  prin- 
ciples;    consequently,    he   is    seen   and  judged   very 
imperfectly.      To    hold    before   men   his    speculative 
philosophy  and  say,  "  This  is  Kant,"  is  as  misleading 
as  to  hold  up  his  sublime  moral  principles  and  say, 
"  So  Kant  lived."     Sometimes  life  is  greater  than  a 
theory,   sometimes   immeasurably    less;    and   a    true 
biography  carefully  discriminates  between  the  theory 
and  the  life.     In  order  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of 
the  author  of  the  Critical  Philosophy,  we  must  not 
merely  distinguish  between  his  speculation  and  prin- 
ciples  on  the  one  hand,  and  his  life  on  the  other,  but 
also  between  that  which  nature  had  made  him,  and 
what  he  became  through  the  stern  discipline  to  which 
he  subjected  himself.  That  the  impulsive  and  extremely 
sensitive  Kant  became  so  complete  a  master  of  himself 
as  to  subject  his  emotions  almost  wholly  to  reason  and 
calculation,  is  remarkable  but  not  inexplicable.     There 
were  evidences  of  sensitiveness  and  of  impulses  to  the 
last;    but   with   the   advance   of  years  they  became 
more  subordinate.     Few  lives  furnish  so  striking  an 
Illustration  of  the  transformation  possible  by  means  of 
circumstances  and   discipline.     The  ardour  of  youth 
may  yield  to  cold  calculation ;  the  sensitive  may  be- 
come   callous,  and  the  gentle  harsh ;  the  enthusiast 
and  the  devotee  may  change  to   the  critic  and  the 


137 


O 


A 


sceptic;    indifference   may  take  the  place  of   ardent 
affection ;  tho  sociable  man  may  become  a  hermit ;  a 
passion  or  interest,  however  strong,  may  be  weakened 
or  even  expelled  by  the  cultivation  of  another;  and 
thus  the  transformation  between  youth  and  age  may  be 
so  complete  that   at  last  the  antipodes  of  "the  early 
characteristics  appear.      This  will  enable  us  to  explain 
apparent  contradictions  in  the  life  of  Kant.     The  severe 
struggles  of  many  years  gave  him  a  training  which 
qualified  him  for  the  mastery  over  himself.     Accord- 
ing to  his  own  testimony,    his  inclination  to  yield  to 
impulses,    whose  results  he  had  occasion    to  regret, 
induced  him  to  form  maxims  for  his  conduct  with  a 
view  of  making  reason,  and  not  impulse,  the  arbiter 
in  all  things.     Being  early  disciplined  in  self-reliance, 
he  developed  a  degree  of  self-sufficiency  which  enabled 
him  to  dispense  largely  with  the  assistance  and  affec- 
tion  of  friends.      Besides,   he   possessed   an  intense 
desire  for  knowledge;   a  worship  of  pure  truth,  and  a 
religious  zeal  to  promote  its  spread ;  a  critical  spirit 
which  controlled  him  in  his  researches  and  was  charac- 
teristic   of   the   tendencies  of  the  age;    an   intellect 
conscious  of  its  great  strength,  and  ambitious  for  the  full 
development  and  manifestation  of  its  powers  ;  and  a  will 
which  could  master  the  body  with  its  ailings,  could 
control  the  emotions,  and,  as  the  pure  practical  reason, 
could  set  up  its  throne  in  his  moral  system,  just  as  the 
speculative  reason  set  up  its  throne  in  the  "  Kritik." 
When  all  these  things  are  considered,  as  well  as  the 
years  of  absorbing   and   abstract  intellectual   toil   in 
preparing  the  great  "Kritik,"  we  can  in  some  measure 
understand  the  remarkable  transformation  to  which  he 
was  subject,  which,  however,  was  not  so  great  as  to 


\ ) 


I 


'.I 


V 


138 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMAMUEL    KANT. 


enable  his  reason,  Ins  maxims,  and  his  will  to  prevent 
the  original  elements  of  his  nature  from  asserting 
themselves  strongly  at  times. 

Long  after  he  had  passed  the  period  of  youth,  Kant 
gave  unmistakable  evidence  that  he  was  not  always  the 
cold,  calm  philosopher.  Being  very  fond  of  dried 
fruits,  he  occasionally  requested  his  friend  Motherby 
to  import  some  for  him.  At  one  time  he  was  eagerly 
expecting  a  vessel  with  French  fruits  which  he  had 
ordered,  and  he  had  already  invited  some  friends  to  a 
dinner  at  which  they  were  to  be  served.  The  vessel 
was,  however,  delayed  a  number  of  days  by  a  storm. 
When  it  arrived,  Kant  was  informed  that  the  provisions 
had  become  short  on  account  of  the  delay,  and  that  the 
crew  had  eaten  his  fruit.  Kant  was  so  angry  that  he 
declared  they  ought  rather  to  have  starved  than  to 
have  touched  it.  Surprised  at  this  irritation,  Motherby 
said,  "  Professor,  you  cannot  be  in  earnest !  "  Kant 
answered,  "  I  am  really  in  earnest,"  and  went  away. 
Sometime  afterwards  Motherby  met  him  and  again 
referred  to  the  matter,  when  the  philosopher  imme- 
diately   declared   that   he   was    sorry    for  his   hasty 

remark.  (^0 

It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  by  suppressing 

his  emotional  nature  he  became  one-sided.  Formerly 
it  was  the  fashion,  in  certain  circles,  to  extol  him  as  a 
prodigy  in  every  department  of  learning,  and  as  a 
complete,  full-orbed,  harmoniously  developed  man;  to 
dissent  from  these  views,  or  to  question  his  authority, 
was  regarded  as  sufficient  cause  for  violent  attacks. 
But  with  the  strongest  admiration  for  Kant  on  the  part 
of  those  who  profess  to  be  his  disciples,  such  hero- 
worship   can  never  return  again.     It  is  plainly  seen 


}  1 


'( 


ii 


t 


*T) 


/ 


EIGIDITr   OF   THOUOHT. 


139 


now  that  he  was  not  only  thoroughly  human,  subject 
to  ordinary  human  inHrmit'"es,  but  that  in  some  respects 
he  was  much  more  one-sided  than  many  who,  compared 
with  him  intellectually,  were  only  pigmies.     It  was  the 
very  fact   that   he  devoted  himself  &o  wholly  to  his 
critical  speculations  which  gave  him  his  real  greatness 
and  the  sublime  elevation  on  which  he  stands  alone. 
"The  quietness  and  firmness  with  which  Kant  confined 
himself  to  the  domain  of  thought,  the  boldness  and 
resoluteness  with  which  he  pressed  unceasingly  forward 
in  this  realm  as  far  as  it  seemed  possible,  constitute 
one  of  the  great  characteristics  in  Kant's  scientific  per- 
sonaHty."(«2)     It  would  have  been  impossible  for  him 
to  have  attained  his  speculative  pre-eminence  if  he  had 
developed  all  his  powers  harmoniouslv. 

Havmg  but  httle  appreciation  of  the  systems  or  even 
thoughts  of  others  after  he  developed  his  own  philo- 
sophy, Kant  became  very  much  set  in  his  opinions. 
His  stern  discipline,  his  intellectual  isolation,  and  his 
riveting  the  attention  so  exclusively  on  subjects  elabo- 
rated by  his  own  mind,  at  last  gave  his  thoughts  an 
unusual  rigidity,  and  made  him  so  impervious  to  the 
arguments  of  others  that,  after  reasoning  out  a  matter 
to  his  own  satisfaction,  he  was  apt  to  be  immovable,— 
a  spirit  which  of  course  increased  with  old  age.     His 
assertions  respecting  the    French  Revolution,  for  in- 
stance, were  often  peremptory,  and  sometimes  he  even 
ignored  facts.     A  contemporary  says,  ^'It  was  difficult 
and  almost  impossible  to  convince  him  that  his  views 
were  wrong ;  even  when  facts  were  presented  against 
these  views,  he  was  not  convinced,  at  least  not  imme- 
diately  and  not  always."(^^)     This  person,  as  well  as 
AYasianski,  gives  an  instance  of  Kant's  habit  of  demon- 


r 


\ 


li 


^-^ 


^E 


RJ 


110 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMAKCJEL   KENT. 


strating  things  a  priori^  even  if  there  was  proof  to  the 
contrary.  lie  had  come  to  the  conchision,  in  1798, 
that  Napoleon  could  not  have  the  intention  of  landing 
in  Egypt,  but  that  while  he  pretended  to  be  fitting  out 
an  expedition  against  that  country,  he  was  really  pre- 
paring to  enter  Portugal.  It  was  his  opinion  that 
England  would  feel  most  keenly  the  capture  of  Portugal 
by  the  French,  owing  to  the  important  commercial 
relations  between  those  two  countries.  So  satisfactorily 
had  he  demonstrated  to  himself  this  supposed  stratagem 
of  Napoleon,  that  even  after  the  French  had  landed  in 
Egypt,  and  the  Government  had  announced  the  fact  to 
all  Europe,  he  still  asserted  that  the  expedition  was 
against  Portugal,  and  that  the  announcement  to  the 
contrary  was  only  a  pretext  to  mislead  the  English. 

His  dogmatic  spirit  seems  at  last  to  have  become 
his  second  nature,  and  the  dictatorial  tone  of  the 
authoritative  professor  could  not  escape  the  notice 
of  his  friends.  These,  indeed,  plead  age  and  great 
learning  as  an  apology  ;  but  even  those  who  charitably 
considered  these  facts  could  not  wholly  escape  the 
unfavourable  impression  made  by  this  spirit.  Count 
Purgstall,  whose  enthusiastic  admiration  for  the  great 
philosopher  cannot  be  questioned,  after  spending  some 
time  at  Konigsberg  and  in  Kant's  society,  says,  ''  The 
result  of  my  observation  respecting  Kant  is  this :  he 
is  certainly  honest,  his  soul  is  pure,  he  is  childlike, 
and  does  not  consider  himself  a  great  man.  This  is 
admitted  by  all  who  know  him  well.  .  .  .  His  knowledge 
of  men  is  extensive,  he  has  studied  the  world,  and 
knows  how  to  speak  admirably  of  many  things  which 
do  not  belong  to  his  speciality.  He  alone  is  a  great 
speculative  philosopher.  .  ,  .  Only  once  in  a  thousand 


\. 


j:sthetic  culture. 


141 


years  is  a  Kant  born;  and  nature  has  very  wisely 
arranged  this,  for  only  once  in  a  thousand  years  is  a 
speculative  philosopher  necessary. 

**  Now,  as  surely  as  I  believe  that  Kant's  morality 
and  humanity  have  not  suffered  through  the  dangerous 
position  of  a  professor,  so  sure  is  it  that  he  has  not 
escaped  all  the  faults  and  imperfections  of  his  office. 
Thus,  he  cannot  bear  to  hear  others  talk  much,  becomes 
impatient,  at  least  for  the  moment,  if  any  one  professes 
to  know  anything  better  than  he  does,  monopohzes 
the  conversation,  and  professes  to  know  everything 
about  all  countries,  places,  divisions  of  the  earth,  and 
the  like.  For  instance,  he  professed  to  know  better 
than  I  do  what  kind  of  fowls  we  have,  how  our  country 
looks,  what  degree  of  culture  our  Catholic  priests  have 
attained,  and  similar  things.  In  all  these  matters  he 
contradicted  me."(^^)  And  this  was  done  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  he  had  never  been  in  the  region  under 
consideration.  ^ 

We  do  not  expect  much  aesthetic  culture  from  one  / 
who  devotes  himself  as  exclusively  as  Kant  did  to  the  ' 
rigid  sciences.     It  is  true  that  he  made  art,  and  beauty       rh 
in  general,  a  subject  for  analysis  and  speculation  in  his     \\ 
''Critique  of  the  Judgment,"  and  he  wrote  asmall  volume^  y 
on  "The  Emotion  of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime.'' 
But  aside  from  his  scrupulous  care  in  his  dress,  espe- 
cially in  his  early  manhood,  he  gave  no  marked  evidence^ 
of  taste.     In  furnishing  his  house  he  proved  that  he 
was  not  actuated  by  a  love  of  the  beautiful ;  and  no 
man   of  taste   could  have   written   as   he   did   in  his 
*'  Antliropology,''  "  In  complete  solitude,  no  one  would 
adorn  or  polish  his  house ;  nor  will  he  do  it  for  the 
sake  of  his  wife  and  children,  but  only  for  the  sake  of 


I! 


/ 


142 


THE    LIFE   OP   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


r\j 


r:-^ 


friends,  in  order  to  showhimselfto  tliem  to  advantage." 
In  his  "  Critique  of  the  Judgment  "  he,  however,  gives 
some  profc'^iid  thoughts  on  the  nature  of  the  beautiful. 
[""Respecting  Kant's  appreciation  of  art,  Borowski  says^ 
*'  He  never  seemed  to  pay  much  attention  to  paintings 
and  engravings,  even  when  of  a  superior  kind.  In 
galleries  and  rooms  containing  much  admired  and 
highly  praised  collections,  I  never  noticed  that  he 
specially  directed  his  attention  to  the  pictures,  or  in 
any  way  gave  evidence  of  his  appreciation  of  the  skill 
Lof  the  artist." 

TOf  music  he  spoke  disparagingly,  and  one  of  his 
friends  declared  that  he  preferred  noise  to  harmony. 
Kant  charges  music  with  a  lack  of  politeness,  in  that 
it  forces  itself  on  the  attention  when  not  wanted,  and 
in  this  way  disturbs  society.  It  differs  in  this  respect 
from  the  arts  which  address  the  eye,  since  one  can 
turn  away  from  them  if  he  does  not  desire  to  see  them. 
Music  is  like  an  odour,  which  spreads  in  every  direction 
^S^  and  must  be  breathed  even  when  not  wanted.  *'  He 
^^^  who  draws  a  perfumed  handkerchief  from  his  pocket, 
treats  all  who  are  about  him  to  an  odour  against  their 
will,  for  if  they  breathe  at  all,  they  are  obliged  to  inhale 
it ;  for  this  reason  it  has  gone  out  of  fashion.  Those 
who  recommend  the  singing  of  spiritual  songs  as  a  part 
of  family  devotions,  do  not  consider  that  they  inflict  a 
great  annoyance  on  the  public  by  means  of  such  a  noisy 
(and  for  that  very  reason  usually  Pharisaic)  devo- 
tion, since  thereby  the  neighbourhood  is  obliged  either 
to  join  in  the  singing,  or  else  to  suspend  the  effort  to 
think."  He  advised  some  young  friends  not  to  study 
music,  because  it  would  take  too  much  time  from  their 
Lscientific  pursuits ;  and  he  also  thought  its  tendency 


^ 


\ 


"w  '-        ». 


J 


\\  \\. 


\ 


I 


1 


MUSIC. 


143 


was  to  make  effemmate.     He  rarely  attended  concerts! 
at  any  time,  and  never  during  the  latter  part  of  his   . 
life      Military  music  he  liked  best;  funeral  dirges  he^ 
disliked  exceedingly,     ^^hen  the  Jews  in  Konigsber.^ 
commemorated  the  death  of  Moses  MendelssohnfKanf    \ 
was  present.     In  giving  an  account  of  the  afflir    he  v^ 

^"f^T  "^"Ti  ''  "'^  "'*'^'""^'  '^i^-g-^eable  moan- 
ing,   and  he  could  not  think  of  it  without  extreme 
aversion.     It  is  said  that  he  never  attended  a  concert 
after   this  experience,  in   order   not  to  be  subjected  / 
again  to  similar  torture.  --' 

There  being  a  prison  near  his  house,  he  was  greatly 
annoyed  by  the  singing  of  the  prisoners  during  their 
re  igious  exercises      In  1784  he  wrote  a  characteristic 
letter  to  his  friend  Hippel,  who  was  pohce-director  and 
pnson.mspector,  asking  to  be  reheved  "of  the  stentorian 
devotion  of  the  hypocrites  in  prison."     In  this  appeal 
he  says.  « If  their  voices  were  so  moderated  during 
smging  that   they   can  hear   themselves   with  closed 
M'lndmvs.  I  do  not  think  that  they  will  have  reason  te 
complain  that  their  soul's  salvation  will  be  endangered 
unless  they  bawl  at  the  top  of  their  voices.     Even  with 
out  making  so  much  noise,  they  might  procure  a  certi- 
hcate  from  the  prison-keeper  (which  is  probably  their 
principal  aim),  testifying  that  they  are  very  devout 
persons  ■  for  he  will  be  able  to  hear  them  at  any  rate 
and  I  only  want  their  voices  to  be  toned  down  to  that 
pitch  which  the  pious  citizens  of  our  good  citv  find 
loud  enough  for  their  edification." 

the  art  of  deceiving  people,  and  opposed  teachers  of 
eloquence,  comparing  them  with  lawyers.  He  wanted 
cold  logic,  without  any  art  of  persuasion,  as  the  means 


I 


\. 


V 


~N, 


i^ 


; 


144 


THE   LTFB   Or   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


{ 


;'\ 


i   * 


{I 


I? 


li    > 


of  conviction ;  and  said  that  the  reading  of  a  beautiful 
poem  always  gave  him  pleasure,  while  in  the  perusal 
of  the  best  speeches  of  Roman,  parliamentary,  or  pulpit 
orators,  he  experienced  a  feeling  of  disapproval,  because 
he  perceived  in  them  the  deceitful  art  which  persuades 
people  to  form,  in  weighty  affairs,  conclusions  which 
lose  all  significance  on  calm  reflection. 
I      The  first  place  in  the  beautiful  arts    is  assigned  by 
him  to  poetry,  which  he  regarded  as  almost  wholly  the 
product    of   genius   and   as    the    art   which   is    least 
governed   by  rules  or  models.     He   was  fond  of  the 
poets    and    frequently    quoted    them.       Besides    his 
favourite  Latin  authors,  Lucretius,  Horace,  Juvenal, 
and  Virgil,  he  had  a  preference  for  Pope  among  the 
[gpghsh  and  Haller  among   the  German  poetsji   The 
time  for  the  study  and  appreciation  of  Shakspeare  in 
Germany  had  not  yet  come;  the  deep  insight    into 
human  nature  revealed  by  this  wonderful  seer  would 
doubt   have   made  him  most  attractive  to   Kant. 


no 


/  f. 


pffe  read  Milton,  Wieland,  Buerger,  and  others;  but 
Young's  "Night  Thoughts,"  which  were  very  popular 
in  Germany,  were  too  monotonously  serious  for  him. 
N^      Though  Herder  had  been  his  pupil  and  once  a  great 
favourite,  Kant  did  not  read  his  poems,   being  preju- 
diced against   him  on  account  of  one  of  his  earlier 
^    prose  works.     For  Lessing's  dramas  he  manifested  no 
^     fondness,  and  he  was  not  acquainted  with  the  poetical 
■^    works    of  Schiller  and   Goethe.      He  read  Schiller's 
"  ^Esthetic  Letters,"  which  were  in  his  own  immediate 
line   of   thought,  he    himself  having   written  on    the 
same  subject.     His  knowledge  of  German  poetry  did 
/  not  extend  to  a  later  period  than  that  of  Klopstock  ; 
Uand   for   his    poems    he    had    no    taste.     When   the 


a» 


rv^ 


■    \ 


GENIUS. 


145 


Ausustan  era  of  German  literature  began,  he  was 
X  too  old  to  appreciate  it,  or  was  too  n^uch  occupied 
with  his  own  works  to  give  it  any  f  tent^^^-  .  ' 

Tt  is  only  in  art  that  Kant  acknowledges  genius. 
He  defines  it  as  a  gift,  in  distinction  from  an  aoqm.- 
tion  •  as  a  law  unto  itself  and  the  creator  of  its  own 
fZ'  in  distinction  from  the  ability  to  work  according 
1  ir,  nrescribed  by  another.  Wherever  law  rules 
l:rrof^rp— it/  as  i-cience  PhUo^j^h^^^^^^^ 
morals  he  recognizes  no  gemus.  The  appellation  o 
rpWosopHcal'or  specnlative  genius  he  would  ha™ 

^tr  ::;a:t°""sLies  m  *»  g,.nasi„n.  *n 

•  v.      .r..  n\^  ■  and  his  intellectual  career  may 

tenhis  ''  as  he  calls  those  who  despise  study  and  with- 
gemus,    as  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^y. 

:W  Thatt  0  leTone  in  vie^  of  these  so-called 
;t?usesT   "  What  else  except  to  laugh  at  them  and 
patiently  pursue  one's  course  with  di  igence  ordei,  and 
■     refinrteueL,  without  regarding    such  J^ff -•        ^ 
Za  a  eenius  for  work,  and  never  expected  to  accom 
thth  artWng  except  by  hard  and  persistent  labour. 

^  tide  from   his    special    studies,   his   readmg  was 
Aside  trom  V  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^^^ 

rru«h™::!-it  .as  saia,  .■  He  reads  a;,. ha.  is 
:„;t."    Christian    theolog,    excepted,    there    was 


li 


~v 


/ 


A) 


I 


146 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


scarcely  a  department  of  learning  which  did  not 
interest  hira  and  become  an  object  of  his  investigations. 
So  far  was  he  from  being  a  narrow  specialist,  that  he 
was  in  the  true  sense  a  polymathist. 

A  glance  at  the  subjects  which  engaged  his  attention 
gives  some  conception  of  the  breadth  of  his  mind  and 
the  extent  of  his  interest  in  learning.  His  partiality 
for  the  classics,  mathematics,  physics,  astronomy,  and 
for  metaphysics,  has  already  been  mentioned,  as  well 
as  his  interest  in  medical  works.  Law  was  included 
in  his  reading,  which  is  evident  from  his  discussion 
of  "  The  Metaphysical  Principles  of  Law;"  books  on 
morals  and  natural  religion  also,  since  he  lectured  and 
published  works  on  these  subjects.  Besides  his  deep 
interest  in  those  laws  of  the  mind  which  lie  even 
beyond  the  ken  of  most  philosophers,  he  was  interested 
in  the  manners,  customs,  politics,  trades,  religious  opi- 
nions, the  institutions,  and  the  life  of  nations,  and  em- 
bodied the  results  of  his  investigations  in  his  ''  Anthro- 
pology." And  while  he  applied  Newton's  discoveries 
and  developed  metaphysical  principles  in  physics,  he 
also  studied  the  surface  of  the  earth,  its  mountains, 
valleys,  forests,  rivers,  lakes,  seas,  and  atmosphere, 
together  with  their  inhabitants,  and  made  his 
"Physical  Geography"  the  depository  of  his  researches 
on  these  subjects.  He  did  not  need  the  metaphysical 
speculations  of  others  to  impel  him  to  philosophize, 
for  he  could  evolve  abstractions  enough  from  his  own 
mind  without  this  impulse ;  and  when  his  mind  was 
weary  with  speculation,  it  naturally  turned  to  those 
N^  subjects  which  were  calculated  to  give  it  freshness  and 
^  recreation.  Accounts  of  travel  were  his  favourite 
reading  for  relaxation,  and  he  read  all  important  books 


PJ 


-mj^"-' 


'  [ 


s 


i\ 


) 


FAVOURITE    AUTHORS. 


147 


I 


of    this    kind  which  were  accessible. O     Eagerly  he\ 
sought  for  original  writers,  and  took  delight  even  in  \ 
their  paradoxes.    Professor  Kraus  says,  ''Thinking  was 
a  necessity  for  his  active  mind,  which  always  sought 
that  which  was  new  and  transcended  the  usual  concep- 
tions.    Hence  his  love  for  paradoxical  writings." 

English    and    French  writers  were  among  his    fa- 
vourite authors.     In  his  study  of  physics  he  was  most 
indebted  to  Newton.     Frequently  he  refers  to  Locke, 
and  repeatedly  to  Berkeley ;  but  owing  to  the  critical 
spirit  of  Hume  and  the  impulse  which  he  had  received 
from   him,   Kant  placed  him  higher    than  any  other 
Scotch   or   English  metaphysician.     While  he   spoke 
highly  of  Shaftesbury,  he  particularly  esteemed  Hut- 
cheson  as  a  moral  philosopher,  and  recommended  him 
to  those  engaged  in  the  study  of  ethics,  just  as  he 
did  Hume  in  metaphysics.     Among  French  authors,  he 
had  read  Montaigne  while  still  a  student,  and  knew 
many  passages  of  his  "  Essays"  by  heart.  Montesquieu's 
political  views  and  his  knowledge   of  various  nations 
made  him  a  great  favourite.     While  the  German  meta- 
physician was  averse  to  Voltaire's  flippancy,  he  shared 
his  antagonism  to  real  or  supposed  fanaticism.  /But 
(of  all  French  writers  he  preferred  Rousseau,  whose  1 
views  of  human  nature,  of  education,  and  of  the  freedom  I 
and  rights  of  man,  deeply  interested  Kant  and  made  a 
lasting  impression  on    his  mind^  The   only  picture 
which  adorned  his  house  was  one  of  Rousseau.     His 
"  Emile  "  so  engrossed  the  philosopher's  attention  that 
for  several  days  it  kept  him  from  his  usual  walk.     This 
author  and  Montesquieu  had  most  influence  in  mould- 
ing his   social  and  political   viewjj    Speaking  of  his 
own  thirst  for  learning,  and  of  the  fact  that  he  had 

L  2 


01- 


u^ 


^■;-rT^^'r''*t"— r":~X''''  "^ 


-:::»-i 


">L. 


} 


148 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEri    KANT. 


i 


I, 

I 


made  knowledge  the  criterion  of  human  excellence,  he 
says,  "  There  was  a  time  when  I  thought  that  this 
could  determine  the  worth  of  man,  and  I  despised  the 
masses  who  know  nothing.  Rousseau,  however,  set 
me  right.  This  apparent  advantage  disappears ;  I  am 
learning  to  honour  men,  and  I  should  regard  myself 
as  much  more  worthless  than  the  common  labourer,  if 
I  did  not  believe  that  the  pursuits  I  am  following  can 
promote  the  worth  of  others,  by  aiding  in  restoring  the 
rights  of  man." 

As  he  had  never  travelled,  he  depended  chiefly  on 
books  for  his  knowledge  of  countries  and  nations  ;  but 
his    contact   with   persons  from  different   lands  also 
aided  him.     Kant  took  pleasure  in  meeting  persons  of 
diverse  opinions,  occupations,  and  degrees   of  culture, 
in  order  that  he  might  study  man  in  various   circum- 
stances  and   relations.     With    men    who    had    made 
specialities  of  them,  he  liked  to    discuss  chemistry, 
- — galvanism,  and  even  craniology.     Though  Konigsberg 
had  no  large  libraries,  it  possessed  many  books  of  inte- 
rest and  value  ;  and  besides  the  public  ones,  there  were 
circulating  libraries  which  contained  works  of  scientific 
and  literary  importance.     The  book-stores  were  the 
common  resorts   of  literary  men   and   scholars,  where 
they  wrote  letters,  examined  new  books,  had  access  to 
periodicals,  and  discussed  the  literary  news  of  the  day. 
Among  the  booksellers  who  visited  the  book-market  in 
Leipzig,  and  came  in  contact  and   corresponded  with 
men  of  letters,  were  persons  of  literary  taste  and  pro- 
moters  of   literature.     They    cheerfully   placed   their 
books     and    journals     at    Kant's     disposal    without 
\  pecuniary  consideration.     While  Konigsberg  suffered 
intellectually  from  its  literary  isolation,  its  advantages. 


i 


I 


{ 


\\     ^' 


j 


LIBRAEY. 


149 


though  inferior  to  those  of  Berlin,  Leipzig,  Weimar, 
and  other  intellectual  centres,  were  still  considerable, 
and  Kant  had  much  opportunity  for  the  gratification 
of  his  varied  scholarly  tastes.  Professor  Kraus  says 
of  him,  "  As  soon  as  he  received  the  semi-annual 
catalogue  of  books,  he  marked  nearly  all  accounts  of 
travel,  as  well  as  the  chemical,  physical,  and  other 
works  from  whose  authors  he  had  reason  to  expect 
something  instructive.  These  books  he  read  succes- 
sively, and  was  generally  through  with  the  list  long 
before  the  new  catalogue  appeared,  which  he  treated 
in  the  same  way.  While  writing,  he  always  had  a  new 
unbound  book  lying  beside  him,  which  he  would  read 
when  mentally  wearied,  in  order  to  prepare  himself  , 
again  for  meditation  and  composition."  1 

Owing  to  the  generosity  of  the  booksellers  who  j 
permitted  him  to  read  books  and  then  return  them,  it  / 
was  not  necessary  for  him  to  purchase  many  works  J. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  his  library  consisted  of  about 
five  hundred  volumes,  including  many  pamphlets. 
Professor  Gensichen,  who  inherited  this  library,  says 
of  it,  "  Among  the  older  books  I  find  more  on 
mathematics  and  physics  thau  on  philosophy.  The 
newer  volumes  are,  of  course,  mostly  philosophical, 
and  those  occasioned  by  Kant's  philosophy  are  con- 
siderable in  number ;  it  is  probable  that  he  did  not 
buy  a  single  one  of  them,  but  that  the  most  of  them, 
if  not  all,  were  sent  to  him  by  their  authors.  I  am, 
therefore,  inclined  to  believe  that  Kant  furnished  his 
library  chiefly  with  books  on  mathematics  and  physics 
(chemistry  included)."  He  also  makes  this  statement : 
"  In  the  library  left  by  Kant  I  miss  all  his  works  pre- 
ceding the  "  Kritik   of  Pure  Reason,"    and   also  his 


> 


I 


k^.^,  ^i^.A^i^^,£iiM^iiiMSitbai 


iU 


V 


/ 


150 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


<*  Critique  of  the  Judgment."  Probably  Kant  gave 
away  some  of  his  books,  especially  in  his  last  years, 
and  loaned  others  which  were  never  returned ;  this 
seems  likely  from  the  fact  that  of  works  containing  a 
number  of  volumes,  only  a   few   of  the    set   are  on 

hand."  {'') 

In   speaking  of  the  learned  peculiarities  of  different 

nations,  Kant  says  that  among  the  Germans  genius 
develops  into  roots ;  among  the  Italians,  into  f ohage ; 
among   the   French,    into   flowers ;    and   among   the 
Enghsh,  into  fruit.     According  to  this  generalization, 
he  himself  was  thoroughly  German,  though  we  also 
find  flowers  and  fruit  in  his  scholarship.     The  breadth 
in  his  scientific  studies  is  worthy  of  special  note.     He 
did  not  want  the  sciences  to  be  isolated,  and  it  is  a 
significant  fact  that  he  attached  so  much  importance 
to  the  study  of  mathematics  and  physics   in  connexion 
with  speculative  philosophy.    In  his  "  Logic  "  he  states 
that  the  improvement  in  metaphysics  in  modern  times 
is  due,  partly  to  the  more  diligent  study  of  nature, 
partly   to    the   union    of    mathematics    with    natural 
science.     The  cannexion  of  mathematics,  physics,  and 
metaphysics,  is  a  characteristic  of  his  studies  as  well 
as  of  his  works.     The  book  just  quoted  gives  a  hint 
of  his  aim  in  his  studies  :  "  Mere  polymathy  is  cyclopic 
learning,   which   lacks   an   eye,    namely   the    eye   of 
philosophy;    and  a  cyclop  in    mathematics,  history, 
natural  history,  or  philology,  is  a  scholar  who  is  great 
in  all  these,  but  regards  a  philosophy  respecting  them 
as  unessential." 

Although  Kant  read  historical  works,  he  did  not 
suflBlciently  appreciate  history  to  give  it  the  place  it 
deserves.     His    depreciation   of   this    department    of 


V 


HISTORY. 


151 


learning  will  be  the  more  easily  explained  if  we 
remember  that  his  education  belonged  to  a  period 
when  there  was  but  little  taste  in  Germany  for  general 
history  and  when  there  were  no  attractive  historical 
books.  The  impulse  given  to  this  study  by  Moser, 
Frederick  II.,  Schiller,  and  John  von  Miiller,  belongs 
to  a  later  age.  Kant's  habit  of  demonstrating  pro- 
positions a  priori  led  him  to  ignore  historical  facts.  He 
wanted  to  carry  his  mathematical  spirit  into  history, 
and  it  is  said,  "  A  report  which  did  not  give  time  and 
place,  however  reliable  it  might  otherwise  be,  he  never 
trusted  and  did  not  think  worthy  of  notice."  In  his 
"  Logic  "  he  shows  that  he  was  eager  to  discover  and  to 
teach  those  principles  and  methods  which  would  enable 
their  possessors  to  find  what  they  wanted  without 
burdening  the  memory;  and  he  thought  that  the  man 
who  would  sum  up  history  under  permanent  ideas 
would  be  a  praiseworthy  genius,  rendering  special 
service  to  the  human  mind.  He  also  says,  "  Teachers 
of  reason  are  generally  ignorant  of  history."  In  his 
religious  views  his  effort  to  substitute  reason  for 
history  is  very  apparent. 

His  contemporaries  were  not  blind  to  his  depreciation 
of  history  in  the  interest  of  a  priori  knowledge.  Herder 
wrote  to  Hamann,  "  It  is  strange  that  metaphysicians, 
like  your  Kant,  even  in  history  want  no  history,  and 
as  much  as  boldly  banish  it  from  the  world.  I  will 
carry  together  fire  and  wood,  in  order  to  make  the 
historical  flame  large,  even  if  again,  as  in  the  case  of 
my  '  Urkunde,'  it  should  be  the  funeral  pyre  of  my 
philosophy.  Let  them  speculate  in  their  cold  ice- 
heaven  !  "  One  who  studies  Kant's  writings  carefully, 
cannot  avoid  the  conclusion  of  a  recent  writer  who  says. 


ii 


.'j^- 


/ 


H 


1 


A 


152 


'|i 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


"  At  the  same  time,  it  is  to  be  said  that  the  historical 
element  in  its  widest  sense  never  received  its  full  due 
at  the  hands  of  Kant,  whose  deficiency  in  the  historical 
interest  was  remarkable."  (^^) 

However,  in  spite  of  these  defects  which  only  blind 
admiration  can  be  disposed  to  deny,  those  who  know 
him  merely  as  the  eminent  speculative  philosopher  have 
no  conception  of  his  many-sided  and  extensive  attain- 
ments.    His  most  intimate  friends  were  astonished  at 
the  breadth  of  scholarship  and  the  philosophic  depth 
revealed  in  his  conversations,  as  well  as  in  his  lectures 
and  books.      In  fact,  he  was    treated   as  if  a  living 
library,  and  was  consulted  personally  and  by  letter  on 
the  most  varied  subjects.     His  fame,  however,  rests 
mainly  on  his  metaphysical  works,  and  among  these 
chiefly  on  his  "  Kritik."     His  influence  on  morals  has 
been  great,  and  his  postulates  have  permanent  value, 
but  he  did  not   succeed  in  establishing  moral  philo- 
sophy on  a  firm  basis.     In  mathematics,  physics,  and 
astronomy,  he  is  rarely  mentioned  now,  except  in  con- 
nexion either  with  his  metaphysical  views  or  his  cos- 
mogony.    He  gave  a  new  impulse  to   aesthetic  studies 
at  a  period  when  the  revival   in  literature  made  this 
impulse  specially  potent.     His  '^  Anthropology ''  and 
"  Physical  Geography,"  being  popular  rather  than  pro- 
found,  exerted  only  a  temporary  influence,  this  being 
especially   the  case    with  the    latter.     But  in  meta- 
physics he  attained  an  eminence  unparalleled  in  modern 
philosophy,  and  the  '*  Kritik  "  has  deservedly  made  his 
name  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  hterature. 


N 


V-J 


'/■ 


153 


CHAPTER   VI. 


HOME    AND    SOCIAL   LIFE. 


The  philosopher's  home — Regularity — Carefulness  in  trifles — Lampe 
— Dress — Recreation — Table-talk — Social  power — Self-respect 
— Relatives — Views  of  woman  and  marriage — Love-affairs. 

The  world  has  learned  to  know  Kant  as  a  toilsome 
student  and  a  great  metaphysician ;  what  wonder, 
then,  if  it  has  regarded  him  as  an  ideal  German  pro- 
fessor who  buries  himself  in  his  study,  and  disregards 
the  world  and  its  affairs,  society  and  its  attractions  ? 
Such  a  picture  of  the  Konigsberg  philosopher  is  purely 
imaginary.  Instead  of  being  a  hermit  whose  study 
was  his  cell,  and  whose  sole  companions  were  his  books 
and  his  thoughts,  we  find  that  his  interests,  like  his 
reading,  were  extensive  and  varied,  that  he  was  very 
sociable,  was  frequently  in  company,  and  exerted  a 
powerful  social  influence. 

For  a  number  of  years  after  he  became  a  teacher 
in  the  university,  he  lodged  in  private  dwellings,  and 
Borowski  speaks  of  five  different  houses  in  which  he  had 
his  abode.  His  studious  habits  led  him  to  seek  locali- 
ties and  houses  which  were  quiet,  this  being  the  more 
essential  to  him  because  he  was  so  easily  disturbed : 
but  for  a  long  time  his  limited  means  neither  permitted 
him  to  purchase  a  house  nor  to  choose  just  such  loca- 


) 


I, 


■^ 


■t^iiSmiiMMj^mi 


V 


154 


THE    LIFK   OF   IMMANDEL   KANT. 


'     I 


tions  as  were  best  suited  to  his  purpose.  With  respect 
to  his  rooms  and  surroundings  he  was  particular  and 
even  pecuhar.  While  lodging  in  one  house  he  was 
disturbed  in  his  meditations  by  the  crowing  of  a  cock 
in  a  neighbouring  yard.  Although  he  offered  a  con- 
siderable sum  for  the  noisy  fowl,  the  obstinate  owner 
refused  to  sell  him,  as  he  could  not  conceive  how  a 
cock  could  annoy  a  philosopher.  As  the  disturber  of 
his  meditations  could  not  be  silenced,  Kant  removed 

to  another  locality. 

While  occupying  lodgings  he  dined  at  some  public- 
house,  the  choice  of  which  depended  mainly  on  the 
probability  of  meeting  agreeable  company.  One  house 
he  left  because  a  guest  was  in  the  habit  of  speaking 
very  deliberately,  and  with  a  degree  of  pathos,  even 
when  he  talked  of  unimportant  affairs.  Kant  found 
the  presence  of  this  man  intolerable,  and  so  he  took 
his  dinner  elsewhere.  He  ceased  to  patronize  another 
restaurant  because  some  of  the  guests  expected  him  to 
play  the  professor  at  dinner  and  converse  on  learned 
subjects,  whereas  he  desired  rest  and  recreation.  At 
these  public  houses  he  liked  to  read  the  papers  and 
discuss  the  news  of  the  day,  and  in  earlier  years  he 
also  played  billiards  and  cards. 

In  1783  he  purchased  the  house  which  was  his  home 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  It  was  centrally 
located  on  Princess  Street,  but. not  in  a  noisy  part  of 
the  city,  and  had  a  small  garden.  There  were  eight 
rooms ;  his  lecture-room,  the  kitchen,  and  the  cham- 
ber for  his  aged  cook,  on  the  ground  floor ;  his  own 
rooms,  five  in  number,  were  on  the  first  floor,  consist- 
ing of  the  study,  library,  the  dining,  bed,  and  recep- 
tion rooms  ;  the  attic  was  occupied  by  his  male  servant. 


FURNITURE. 


155 


I 


His  furniture  was  exceedingly  plain,  and  it  was  evident 
at  a  glance  that  it  was  selected  for  service,  not  for 
ornament.  In  general  a  table  or  two,  a  few  chairs,  and 
a  sofa,  constituted  the  furniture  of  a  room.  His  study 
contained  a  few  tables,  covered  with  papers  and  books, 
and  also  a  chest  of  drawers.  The  bare  walls  of  his 
rooms  were  relieved  by  no  picture,  save  the  solitary 
portrait  of  Rousseau,  which  was  the  gift  of  a  friend. 
His  table-ware  and  kitchen-utensils  were  also  very 
plain,  being  merely  such  as  were  necessary  to  entertain 
a  few  friends  at  dinner.  The  entire  inner  arrange- 
ment of  his  house  revealed  a  philosopher  who  was 
extremely  simple  in  his  tastes  and  mode  of  life. 

While  the  home  is  not  the  man,  its  air  is  generally 
an  expression  of  his  spirit,  especially  if  neither  wife 
nor  child  disputes  his  supremacy.  Our  philosopher  at 
home  is  so  interesting  to  us  because  we  there  come 
into  more  intimate  contact  with  him  than  in  other  re- 
lations, and  also  because  we  get  views  of  him  which 
are  not  so  familiar  as  those  of  the  eminent  professor 
and  the  distinguished  author.  We,  indeed,  see  him  in 
his  home  only  during  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life ; 
but  these  are  the  years  of  his  greatest  celebrity.  Kant 
was  sole  lord  in  his  house,  and  his  will  was  the  supreme 
law.  We  must  not  be  astonished  if  he  is  not  found  to 
have  been  the  neatest  of  housekeepers,  and  if  some- 
times things  were  permitted  to  go  their  own  way ;  there 
is  a  compensation  in  the  fact  that  in  most  of  the  affairs 
he  was  sure  to  make  his  supremacy  felt  and  to  have 
his  way.  A  bachelor  has  a  right  to  poor  furniture 
and  black  walls ;  but  Kant  was  a  philosopher  as 
well  as  a  bachelor,  and  elegance  or  annual  house- 
cleaning  might  have  interfered  with  his  speculations. 


156  THE   LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

About  his  personal  habits,  however,  he  was  careful, 
and   with    respect    to   his   appearance   he   was   very 

^^ItwaT"  fortunate  for  his  purse  that  his  happiness 
required  no  beauties  of  art.     He  blamed  those  who 
spent  money  for  furniture  which  was  not  needed,  and 
in  himself  he  would  never  have  excused  extravagance 
in  this  respect.     The  whole  house  had  a  sombre  appear- 
ance, the  effect  of  which  was  increased  by  the  death- 
like  stillness    which   prevailed   during    study   hours. 
According    to    the    testimony    of    Professor    Kraus, 
«'  Kant's  rooms  were   not    only  badly  furnished,  but 
were  so   astonishingly  black  from  the  smoke  of  the 
fire  and  the  lamp,  that  it  was  possible  for  a  person 
to  write  his  name  on  the  walls."     Cobwebs  are  not 
mentioned,  but   they  were   no  doubt   there.       What 
wonder  if  the  scholar  becomes  attached  to  such  thmgs 
for  their  associations,  and  for  the  thoughts  and  sym- 
bols which  he  puts  into  them  !     His  surroundmgs  may 
become  a  part  of  himself,  and  the  desire  not  to  be 
disturbed  may  be    applied  by  him  to  things  as  well 
as  to  his  person.     That  revolutionary  spirit  which  is 
eternally   restless,  and  ruthlessly   demands   domestic 
change  and  renovation,  was  foreign  to  Kant ;  and  it 
is  a  relief  to  find  that  the  philosopher  who  regarded 
the  old  metaphysics  as  consisting  mainly  of  rubbish 
that  must  be  removed,  was  so  extremely  conservative 
respecting  his  mode  of  life  and  his  home.     Scheffner, 
another  friend  of  the  metaphysician,  says,  "  The  walls 
of  his  sitting-room  were  grey,  being  covered  with  dust, 
and  with  smoke  from  his  morning  pipe  ;  and  as  at  one 
time  while  hstening  to  a  conversation  between  him  and 
Hippel,  I  made  some  marks  on  the  wall  with  my  finger 


* 


i 


* 


THE    philosopher's    HOME. 


157 


so  that  tlie  white  ground  became  visible,  Kant  said, 
'  Friend,  why  will  you  disturb  the  ancient  rust  ?  Is 
not  such  a  hanging,  which  arose  of  its  own  accord, 
better  than  one  that  is  purchased?'"  It  is  quite 
natural  that  Kant  should  regard  as  vandalism  that 
spirit  which  takes  pleasure  in  destroying  the  precious 
relics  of  antiquity. 

During  the  first  few  years  after  he  had  his  own  home, 
he  continued  to  dine  at  some  public  house  ;  since  1786, 
however,  he  took  his  meals  at  home.  In  the  evening 
he  would  give  the  orders  for  the  dinner  of  the  follow- 
ing day,  which  the  servant,  well  aware  how  particular 
Kant  was  in  exacting  implicit  obedience,  was  careful 
to  execute  to  the  letter. 

One  of  the  friends  and  guests  of  Kant  gives  a  de- 
scription of  his  home,  and  a  picture  of  the  philosopher 
waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  persons  invited  to  dine 
with  him.     His  imagination  saw  even  in  the  exterior 
of  the  building  evidences  that  it  was  a  thinker's  home, 
which  he  describes  as  rather  antique  and  situated  on  a 
street  which  was  but  little  travelled,  while  back  of  it 
was  an  old  castle,  with  its  moat  and  gardens,  its  towers 
and  prisons.     ''  Both  in  summer  and   in  winter  the 
region  was  quite  romantic,  but  this  he  did  not  appre- 
ciate."    It  is,  however,  the  interior  and  the  occupant 
which    are    of   the   greatest   interest.      "When    one 
entered  the  house,  it  was  found  that  a  peaceful  quiet 
reigned  within ;  and  if  the  savoury  odour  of  the  kitchen, 
a  barking    dog,    or  a  mewing  cat,    favourites  of  the 
cook,  had  not  convinced  him  of  the  contrary,  he  would 
have    thought   that    it   was    uninhabited.     When   he 
ascended  the  steps  the  servant  was  seen  to  the  right, 
preparing  the  table;  the  guests,  however,   passed  to 


\ 


V 


k 


V 


158  THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

bule,  to  a  room  which  represen  ./  i  chairs 

^-  r  nlTrptart  :S;  :  glass-door 
covered  ^f ^  J^^^'e  porcelain  was  visible,  a  bureau 

through  -l"f  /^]^Xr  and  his  money,  a  therxno- 
,b,ch  contained  h^s  siW  ^^^^^  ^  ^.^^^^  ^^  ^^,^^ 

meter  and  a  console  (_wi^       ,^„,tituted  the  furniture 
a  bust  I  do  not  remember),  constitutea  i^  ^^ 
a  DUSK  X  white  walls.       ir-assiug 

which  concealed  a  part  ot  tn3  esepted  the 

through     this    apartment        ™  ^^^^  ^Viich  led  to 
parlour."  the  visitor  came  ^lf;'l^^ll,^,,,,  the 

"'?  ^tr:  ^M  "  Come  in  '  the  philosopher 
study.     With  a  cheertu  ^^^  ,  ^^ 

answered  the  rap  on  this  ^oo^-     ^^        J^  f,,^  the 

^'.  ''  fZ':^Sl^   Th^  ;erlto  common  tables  a 
noise  ot  the  woria.      -i-  drawers  under 

">"-;*  ^^rrXr^tmSetlt tas  «  lor  a 
,  „ea>um.«.ed J"0^^  thermometer,  wUch  he 

passage  to  ^'^^^^^^     ^j^^  „i„a„„,  iad  small  panes 

r-  ""■°  C  roTatpT the"  i^er  sa.  in 
tUe  ■■oom.  Here,  as  ^y^J  ^^  „h„lly  of  wood, 
his  seimcircOar  «  "  ^^  ^^ 

'       *"-''"'.:X,ltr.L  to  *;  door,  longingly 
hungry,  with  his  eyes  Mr  j.  ^^   ^^ 

e:.pecting    Ms    gnests-      M     *,'    %pe„ed  the  door 

approached  "'^  «-' ^^  * ^  Stowever  one  might 
„d  weloomed  tam^    Wher  ^j^^,   „,  t^ 

r  gr;hrs"af  h,m  for  the  hrst  «me^^f -»- 
SXl-rCs^rheToh-^^o-esand 


;. 


^ 


SLEEP. 


159 


charmed  his  hearers.  At  the  arrival  of  the  guests,  he 
would  order  his  servant  to  bring  the  dinner,  while  he 
himself  brought  the  silver  spoons  (called  the  silver) 
from  the  bureau,  and  hastened  to  the  table.  His 
guests  preceded  him  to  the  dining-room,  which  was 
just  as  unadorned  as  the  rest  of  the  house."  (^0 

After  the  death  of  Kant,  the  house  which  had  been 
his  home  for  twenty  years  was  sold  and  turned  into  a 
tavern,  with  a  bowling-alley  andbilliard-room.attached; 
and  thus  the  quiet  abode  of  the  philosopher,  which  was 
so  rich  in  the  most  interesting  associations,  became 
the  scene  of  noise,  confusion,  and  carousals.  A  marble 
tablet  was  placed  in  the  front  wall,  bearing  this 
inscription  : — "  Immanuel  Kant  wohnte  und  lehrte  hier 
von  1783  bis  zum  12  Feb.  1804."  The  name  of  the 
street  on  which  it  stood  was  changed  from  Princess  to 
Kant  Street.  In  the  spring  of  1881  the  house  passed 
over  to  a  new  owner,  who  intended  to  demolish  it,  to 
make  room  for  another  building. 

Kant's  manner  of  life  was  as  simple  as  his  surround- 
ings, its  most  striking  feature  being  its  extreme  regu- 
larity. The  military  order  in  his  life  was  partly  the 
result  of  his  youthful  training,  and  partly  the  result  of 
the  requirements  of  his  health.  In  order  that  his  body 
might  be  the  fit  instrument  of  his  mind,  he  found  that 
great  physical  and  mental  regularity  was  essential.  He 
feared  even  slight  changes,  lest  they  should  affect  his 
health  or  interfere  with  his  studies;  hence  he  was 
rigorous  with  himself,  and  made  his  life  singularly 
methodical.  There  was  a  painful  anxiety  in  his  strict 
conformity  to  rules,  which  at  last  got  the  mastery  over 
him  and  excluded  spontaneity. 

He  regarded  seven  hours  of  sleep  as  sufficient,  and 


f 


160 


THE    LIFE    OP   IMMANCEL    KANT. 


accordingly  limited  himself  to  that  number,  until  m  o  d 
age  when  he  found  that  more  was  necessary    Promptly 
at  ten  he  retired,  and  his  servant  had    strict  orders 
never  to   let  him   sleep    longer   than    five,   however 
strongly  he  might  plead  for  more  rest.     Five  mmutes 
before  five  o'clock,  the  servant  entered  his  room  every 
morning,  with  the  stern,  military  call,  « It  is  time 
And  even  in  the  rare  case  of  loss  of  sleep  during  the 
night    Kant  never  hesitated  a  moment  to  obey   the 
summons.    With  a  degree  of  pride  he  would  sometimes 
ask  the  servant,  in  the  presence  of  his  guests,  whether 
in  thirty  years  he  had  ever  been  obliged  to  wake  him 
twice  ?   His  answer  was,  "  No,  very  noble  Professor ! 
He  rarely  slept  during  the  day.     "  Half  jokmgly,  half 
seriously,  he  would  say,  that  as  Mohammed  believed 
that  a  definite  portion  of  food  was  designed  for  each 
person,  and  if  that  was  consumed  rapidly  death  would 
come  the  sooner  ;  so  still  more  does  this  apply  to  sleep, 
which  should  accordingly  be  enjoyed  sparmgly,  m  order 
that  one  may  sleep  long,  that  is,  may  live  long. 

When  the  clock  struck  five,  Kant  already  sat  at  the 
table  in  his  dressing-gown  and  night-cap,  over  which  he 
wore  a  small  three-cornered  hat.  His  breakfast  con- 
sisted of  weak  tea  and  a  pipe  of  tobacco.  He  took,  he 
said,  one  cup  of  tea;  but  being  absorbed  in  thought,  and 
in  order  to  keep  the  tea  warm,  he  filled  the  cup 
repeatedly,  and  frequently  drank  two  or  more  cups. 
He  was  very  fond  of  coffee  ;  but  he  regarded  its  oil  as 
iniurious,  and  avoided  it  altogether. 

According  to  Jachmann,  he  spent  till  seven  m  the 
morning  in  thinking  over  his  lectures  ;  then  he  dressed, 
and  lectured  for  two  hours  ;  at  nine  he  immediately 
donned  his  gown,  his  night-cap,  his  hat,  and  his  slip- 


UAILT   ROUTINE. 


161 


f 


pers,  and  studied  from  that  time  till  a  quarter  to  one, 
when  he  arose  and  called  to  his  cook,  ''  It  is  a  quarter 
to    one!"     As  he  never   appeared   at  dinner  in   his 
dressing-gown,  regarding  it  as  a  slovenly  habit,  he 
would  then  dress  and  return  to  his  study,  to  await  the 
arrival  of  his  invited  guests.     Even  the  least   delay 
beyond  one  o'clock,  the  hour  for  dinner,  whether  on 
the  part  of  his  cook  or  his  guests,  made  him  impatient. 
During  the  meal  itself  he  disliked  haste,  and  generally 
spent  three  hours  at  the  table,  sometimes,  when  the 
company  was  large,  still  longer.     This  habit  of  sitting 
long  at   table   was  not  confined    to   his   own   home. 
Hippel  said,    "  Professor  Kant   liked   to  dine  at  my 
house,    and    more    than    once    we    sat   from  one   till 
eight;    this,    however,  was    not   for   the    purpose  of 
regaling  the  body,  but   the  mind."     On  rising  from 
the    table   he    usually    took    a    walk    of    an    hour. 
Between    dinner    and   the    walk   he   was    careful   to 
avoid   sitting,    otherwise   he   could   not   resist   sleep, 
which   he  was    determined  to  prevent.     Neither  bad 
weather  nor  any  other  circumstance  was  apt  to  inter- 
fere   with   his    customary  exercise.     In    summer    he 
walked   very  slowly,    so    as   not   to   perspire;    if   he 
noticed  that  he  was  about  to  do  so,  he  at  once  stopped, 
because  he  thought  that  his  constitution  required  that 
he  should  by  all  means  avoid  perspiration.     And  it  is 
stated  as  a  remarkable  fact  that  even  in  the  hottest 
weather  he  never  perspired. (^^     In  his  younger  years 
he  frequently  had  company  while  taking  his  exercise ; 
in  his  old  age  he  preferred  ,to  walk  alone,  because  the 
conversation    wearied    him    and   made    him    breathe 
through  his  mouth,  which  he  regarded  as  injurious. 
After  returning  home  he  spent  the  rest  of  the  day  m 


M 


^( 


} 


\ 

1 


\ 


\ 


im\ 


V,. 


\ 


162 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANtJEL    KANT. 


reading  and  meditation,  or  in  preparing  his  lectures 
for  the  next  day.  This  was  his  usual  routine  aft^r 
he  had  his  own  table,  one  day  passing  like  another. 
While  he  ate  at  public  houses,  and  when  as  tutor  he 
still  had  lectures  in  the  afternoon,  his  life  naust,  of 
course,  have  varied  considerably  from  this  outline. 

The   clock-hke   regularity  of  Kant's  life  surprised 
his    friends,    and    became   the    subject    of    frequent 
remark.     The  poet  Heine  describes  it  rather  poetically 
than  with  historical  accuracy,  as  follows  :— "  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  write  the  history  of  the  life  of  Immanuel  Kant, 
for  he  had  neither   life   nor   history.     He   lived  the 
mechanically   ordered   and  almost   abstract  life   of  a 
bachelor,  in  a  quiet,  retired  little  street  of  Konigsberg, 
an  old  city  on  the  north-eastern  border  of  Germany. 
I  do  not  believe  that  the  large  clock  of  the  cathedral 
did  its  daily  work  with  less  passion  and  with  greater 
regularity  than  its  countryman,  Immanuel  Kant.     To 
rise,  drink  coffee,*  write,  dehver   lectures,  eat,  take 
walks,  everything  had   its    appointed  time;    and  the 
neighbours  knew  that  it  was  exactly  half-past  three 
when  Kant,  in  his  grey  coat  and  with  the   Spanish 
reed  in  his  hand,  stepped  out  of  his  door  and  walked 
towards    the    small   Linden    Avenue,   which    is    still 
called  after  him,   'The  Philosopher's   Walk.'     Eight 
times  he  walked  up  and  down  there,  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year ;  and  when  the  weather  was  unfavourable  or 
the    grey    clouds   portended    rain,    his    old    servant, 
Lampe,    might   be   seen  wandering  anxiously  behind 
him,  with  a  long  umbrella  under  his  arm,  like  a  picture 

of  Providence. 

''  Strange  contrast   between   the   outer  life  of  this 

*  Should  bo  tea,  for  he  drank  no  coffee. 


f 


HIS    MATCH   IN    rUNCTUALITY. 


163 


man  and  his  destructive,  world-crushing  thoughts ! 
.  .  .  The  good  people  (citizens  of  Konigsberg)  saw 
in  him  nothing  but  a  professor  of  philosophy,  and 
when  he  passed,  they  greeted  him  kindly  and  perhaps 
set  their  watches  by  him."(^°) 

That  he  daily  passed  eight  times  up  and  down 
"  The  Philosopher's  Walk,"  is  probably  a  product  of 
Heine's  imagination ;  yet  it  can  hardly  be  said  that 
the  poet  exaggerates  the  undeviating  regularity  of 
Kant's  life.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  find  a  parallel 
to  his  methodical  order  and  promptness.  There  is, 
therefore,  a  degree  of  satisfaction  and  a  kind  of 
poetic  justice  in  the  fact  that  in  punctuality  he  found 
his  match  in  an  Englishman  named  Green,  a  native  of 
Hull;  but  a  resident  of  Konigsberg,  where  he  had  an 
extensive  commission  business.  Green  was  probably 
the  most  intimate  friend  of  the  philosopher,  and  was 
more  a  scholar  than  a  merchant.  In  his  extensive 
reading,  the  discoveries  and  inventions  of  the  English 
particularly  interested  him,  and  he  no  doubt  exerted 
an  important  influence  in  cultivating  Kant's  taste  for 
accounts  of  travel  and  enlarging  his  knowledge  of 
English  literature.  Like  the  philosopher,  he  was  a 
bachelor,  and  his  house  also  had  three  inmates,  himself, 
a  business  companion,  and  a  servant.  Kant  and  Green, 
who  were  very  fond  of  each  other's  company,  agreed 
one  evening  to  take  a  drive  at  eight  the  next  morning. 
Green  was  a  genius  of  punctuality,  and  it  is  said  that 
on  the  occasion  of  such  an  appointment  he  would  begin 
to  walk  about  his  room  a  quarter  before  eight,  with 
watch  in  hand ;  would  put  on  his  hat  ten  minutes 
before  eight,  would  take  his  cane  five  minutes  later,  and 
at  the  stroke  of  the  clock  would  enter  the  carriage. 

M  2 


164 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


LAMPE. 


165 


Unfortunately  Kant  was  not  on  hand  when  the  clock 
struck,  and  Green,  who  never  waited  a  moment  for 
any  one,  drove  away.  He  had  proceeded  but  a  short 
distance  when  he  met  his  belated  friend  walking  rapidly. 
Kant  greeted  him  and  beckoned  him  to  stop ;  Green 
returned  the  salutation,  but  at  the  same  time  bade  him 
adieu  and  drove  on.(''') 

Even  in  trifles  the  great  thinker  sometimes  mani- 
fested  an  anxiety  which  revealed   his    characteristic 
painstaking   care.     One    day   at   dinner   the   servant 
broke  a  wine-glass,   and  Kant  ordered  all  the  frag- 
ments to  be  gathered  on  a  plate  and  placed  before 
him.     Scarcely   was  dinner  over,  when  he  requested 
his  guests  to  go  with  him  for  the  purpose  of  burying 
the  pieces,  a  duty  which  he  could  not  entrust  to  his 
servant.     A  spade  was  brought,  and  the  whole  party 
entered  the  garden,  to  find  a  suitable  place  for  inter- 
ment.    Every  proposition  to  bury  it  here  or  there  was 
met  by   Kant  with  the  objection  that  it   might  one 
day  injure  some  person.     At  last  a  secluded  spot  was 
found  beside  an  old  wall,  a  deep  hole  was  dug,  and  in 
the  presence  of  the  party  the  glass  was  carefully  buried. 
No  picture  of  Kant's  house  is  complete,  unless  his 
old  servant,  Martin  Lampe,  is  made  a  prominent  figure 
in    the    background.     In   his   way    he   was    quite   a 
character,  and  he  was  a  very  essential  person  in  the 
odd  household.     As  the  cook  ruled  over  the  kitchen 
on  the  ground  floor,  with  the  cat  and  dog  as  her  sole 
companions,  so  Lampe   was  perched  on  the  attic,  a 
symbol   of  his   elevation   to  the   position   of  general 
overseer,  being  the  presiding  genius  of  all  the  business 
of  the  house ;  Kant,  the  lone  philosopher,  was  placed 
between  these  two  guardian  angels.     In  rigid  routine. 


Lampe  was  the  counterpart  of  his  master,  an  element 
which  must  have  contributed  much  to  the  esteem  in 
which  the  philosopher  held  him.  He  had  been  a 
soldier,  and  in  the  army  had  acquired  that  mechanical 
regularity  which  characterized  his  service  of  Kant  for 
more  than  thirty  years.  Being  careful  to  execute 
orders  promptly  and  literally,  and  knowing  how  to 
adapt  himself  to  the  peculiarities  of  Kant,  he  had  made 
himself  very  essential  to  his  comfort.  Unfortunately  he 
was  given  to  drink.  His  master  was  liberal  towards  him 
at  first,  but  this  encouraged  him  in  his  intemperate 
habits,  and  he  was  sometimes  drunk  in  the  presence 
of  Kant,  abused  his  trust,  demanded  additions  to  his 
salary,  came  home  at  unseasonable  hours,  and,  in  spite 
of  promises  to  do  better,  became  worse,  and  at  last 
was  regarded  as  incorrigible.  Kant  became  very  sus- 
picious of  Lampe,  and  regarding  severity  as  the  only 
successful  method  of  dealing  with  him,  he  treated  him 
quite  harshly.  Finally,  just  when  his  services  seemed 
most  necessary,  he  had  to  be  dismissed.  It  was  sus- 
pected that  he  had  made  an  assault  on  Kant,  who 
would  never  tell  what  he  had  done,  but  said,  "  Lampe 
has  so  acted  towards  me  that  I  am  ashamed  to  state 
what  he  did."  He  was  discharged  with  a  pension  of 
forty  thalers  a  year  for  life,  with  the  condition  that 
if  he  or  an  emissary  ever  importuned  for  more  money, 
the  pension  should  be  withdrawn. 

Lampe  was  exceedingly  ignorant ;  but  his  long  service 
with  Kant  made  him  conceited,  evidently  thinking 
that  contact  with  the  famous  philosopher  had  enabled 
him  to  absorb  considerable  wisdom.  It  is  said  that 
Kant  and  he  frequently  disputed  about  the  names  of 
things,  the  titles  of  books,  and  the  pronunciation  of 


i 


/ 


16G 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


words:  For  over  thirty  years  Lampe  liad  been  sent 
twice  a  week  to  fetch  the  Hartnng  newspaper  ;  and  to 
avoid  the  confounding  of  this  with  the  Hamburg  paper, 
Kant  was  always  obHged  to  repeat  its  name  to  the 
serv^ant ;  still  he  could  not  remember  it,  and  constantly 
called  it  the  Hartmann  paper.  Kant  would  order  him 
to  say  Hartung ;  but  the  implication  that  he  must  learn 
its  name  from  his  master  vexed  him,  and  in  a  rough 
tone  he  would  say,  *'  Hartung's  paper ;"  but  the  very 
next  time  it  was  brought,  the  name  was  sure  to  be 
wrong  again.  There  was,  however,  one  thing  which 
Kant  did  succeed  in  teaching  him,  namely,  who  was 
king  of  England.  Jokingly  he  would  ask  him  in  the 
presence  of  his  guests,  ^' Who  is  the  King  of  England  ?  " 
He  was  taught  to  reply,  '*  Mr.  Pitt."  And  it  is  stated 
that  at  last  the  notion  that  Pitt  was  king  took  such 
complete  possession  of  Kant's  own  mind,  that  he 
wanted  to  know  of  no  other  King  of  England. 

Not  till  his  old  age  was  Kant's  bedroom  heated 
in  winter,  but  his  study  was  kept  very  warm.  Lampe 
had  the  most  exj^licit  orders  about  the  temperature ; 
but  as  he  consulted  the  thermometer  only  when 
he  made  the  fire,  the  study  was  generally  too  hot,  a 
condition  of  things  to  which  Kant  became  accustomed, 
and  which  he  at  last  actually  required,  so  that  he 
wanted  seventy-five  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  some- 
times even  had  a  fire  in  July  or  August. 

While  Kant  was  all  theory  and  thoroughly  unskilful 
in  mechanical  affairs,  Lampe  was  as  innocent  of  skill  as 
he  was  of  theory,  but  possessed  much  rude  force.  As 
a  consequence,  both  were  apt  to  be  perplexed  over 
trifles,  especially  when  things  were  out  of  repair. 
Kant  would  plan  how  to  mend  a  broken  article,  where- 


LAMPE  S   MAERIAGE. 


167 


^ 


upon  Lampe  would  proceed  to  put  the  theory  into 
practice ;  but  by  the  application  of  excessive  and  un- 
skilled force  he  often  succeeded  in  reducing  the  article 
to  a  condition  which  put  all  future  repair  out  of  the 
question. 

Kant  was  exacting,  and  demanded  implicit  and  literal 
obedience.  Lampe  was  not  only  required  to  manage 
the  affairs  of  the  house  just  as  he  had  received  direc- 
tions, but  also  to  appear  before  the  guests  dressed  as 
his  master  desired.  Li  waiting  on  the  table  he  wore 
a  white  coat  with  a  red  collar;  on  one  occasion,  how- 
ever, he  ventured  to  appear  in  a  yellow  coat,  instead 
of  the  regulation  uniform.  Kant  was  indignant,  and 
ordered  him  to  sell  the  coat  at  once,  promising  to  make 
good  the  loss  sustained  in  the  transaction.  Then  he 
learned  to  his  astonishment  that  Lampe  was  a 
widower,  that  he  expected  to  be  married  again  on  the 
next  day,  and  that  he  had  purchased  the  coat  as  his 
wedding  garment.  This  was  a  revelation  to  Kant, 
who  had  all  along  been  under  the  impression  that  his 
servant  stood  with  himself  on  the  exalted  plane  of 
bachelorhood ;  and  Lampe  fell  greatly  in  his  estimation. 
It  was  not  merely  the  yellow  coat,  instead  of  the  white 
one  with  a  red  collar — but  to  think  that  the  servant 
should  have  been  married,  and  Kant  not  know  it,  and 
that  he  contemplated  marriage  again  on  the  morrow 
without  consulting  his  master  !  We  are,  therefore,  not 
surprised  to  learn  from  Eink,  "It  is  true  that  Kant 
was  very  indignant  on  account  of  Lampe's  marriage, 
and  it  was  the  first  cause  of  his  dissatisfaction  with 
his  old  servant."  And  in  a  note-book  the  philosopher 
wrote,  "  Lampe  is  a  poor  servant ;  first,  because  he 
cannot  write,    and   second,    because   he   is   married, 


/ 


168 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KaNT. 


ATTENTION    TO   DRESS. 


169 


not  only  without  my  consent,  but   even  against  my 

will." 

Kant  paid  an  attention  to  dress  wliicli  is  scarcely  to 
be  expected  from  the  hard  student  and  learned  pro- 
fessor, and  least  of  all  from  the  speculative  philosopher. 
French  fashions,  as  well  as  French  manners,  language, 
and  literature,  were  popular  in  Germany.  The  courts 
aped  Paris  and  set  the  fashions  for  the  people ;  but 
after  the  French  monarchy  had  been  overthrown,  these 
courts  were  less  inclined  to  follow  slavishly  the  modes 
of  Paris,  and  the  Revolution  also  introduced  more 
simplicity  of  dress  in  that  city  than  was  characteristic 
of  the  old  styles.  Before  that  time,  the  French 
fashions  had  made  bright  colours  common  in  gentle- 
men's apparel,  and  Kant's  costume  formed  no  exception 
to  the  general  rule. 

We  should  naturally  expect  our  philosopher  to  appear 
in  society  dressed  in  black ;  but  his  friend  Borowski 
states  that  he  never  wore  black  except  when  there  was 
national  mourning.  Kant  declared  that  it  was  better 
to  be  a  fool  in  fashion  than  to  be  out  of  fashion,  and  this 
was  his  rule  in  the  choice  of  his  garments.  Instead  of 
regarding  minute  attention  to  such  affairs  as  unworthy, 
he  thought  it  showed  a  proper  esteem  for  our  fellow- 
men.  Nature,  he  said,  particularly  the  flowers,  teaches 
the  most  important  lessons  in  the  choice  of  colours  for 
garments ;  thus  the  auricula  shows  us  that  a  yellow 
vest  belongs  to  a  brown  coat.  Jachmann  says,  *'  He 
wore  a  little  three-cornered  hat,  and  a  small,  blonde, 
powdered  wig  with  a  bag  attached ;  a  black  necktie, 
and  a  shirt  with  ruflSes  around  the  throat  and  wrists ; 
a  coat,  pantaloons,  and  vest  of  fine  cloth,  generally  a 
mixture  of  black,  brown  and  yellow ;  grey  silk  stockings. 


\ 


\ 


i 


and  shoes  with  silver  buckles ;  he  also  wore  a  sword 
while  it  was  still  fashionable,  but  afterwards  carried 
an  ordinary  reed  cane.  According  to  the  prevailing 
fashion,  the  coat,  vest,  and  pantaloons  were  bordered 
with  gold  cord,  and  the  buttons  were  covered  with 
gold  or  silver  threads.  This  was  his  usual  dress, 
even  in  the  lecture-room,  where  the  worn  garments 
did  their  last  service."  To  this  strict  compliance 
with  the  requirements  of  fashion  his  hat  formed  an 
exception.  For  over  twenty  years  he  continued  to 
wear  the  same  three-cornered  one ;  at  last  he  used  it 
while  reading,  the  brim  being  turned  down  so  as  to 
shield  his  eyes. 

To  another  acquaintance  of  the  philosopher  we  are 
indebted  for  a  description  of  his  dress  in  old  age. 
''  He  was  always  neatly  dressed ;  and  his  deeply 
serious  face,  his  head  drooping  somewhat  to  one  side, 
his  regular  though  not  too  slow  step,  attracted  reve- 
rential looks  towards  him.  The  bright  sandy  colour  of 
his  dress,  which  afterwards  yielded  to  a  deeper  brown, 
must  not  surprise  us  ;  all  kinds  of  bright  colours  were 
at  that  time  preferred,  and  black  was  reserved  for 
funerals  and  mourning.  On  warm  days  he  went, 
according  to  the  prevailing  custom,  with  his  head  un- 
covered, his  hat  held  on  the  gold  head  of  his  reed  cane, 
a  finely  powered  wig  adorning  his  head.  Silk  stockings 
and  silk  shoes  also  belonged  to  the  usual  dress  of  a 
well-clad  man." 

We  can  even  catch  a  glimpse  of  Kant's  attire  in  his 
study.  Count  Purgstall,  who  called  on  him  early  one 
morning  in  1795,  states  that  he  found  the  little  philo- 
sopher at  work  in  his  study,  in  a  yellow  dressing- 
gown,  a  red,  silk,  Polish  necktie,  and  with  a  night-cap 


y 


\ 


I 


170 


THE    LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL    KANT, 


on  his  head  I  (^^)     Over  this  niglit-cap  he  usually  wore 
his  three-cornered  hat. 

He  was  as  particular  about  the  portraits  of  himself 
as  he  was  in  the  matter  of  dress.  A  Jew  had  made 
an  engraving  of  him  which  so  displeased  Kant  that 
he  threatened  to  sue  the  artist  if  he  sold  any  of  the 
pictures.  His  anger  was  no  doubt  justifiable,  for 
Hamann  says  that  the  picture  made  him  look  like  a 
monster,  at  the  sight  of  which  women  and  children 
should  cross  themselves.  When  the  sculptor  Schadow 
sent  an  artist  to  Konigsberg,  to  make  a  model  of  the 
aged  philosopher,  for  a  marble  bust,  the  man  asked 
Kant  wliether  he  should  model  him  altogether  faith- 
fully ?  His  answer  was,  "  So  old  and  ugly  as  I  am 
now  you  must  not  make  me." 

Kant  understood  the  rare  art  of  making  his  re- 
laxation the  means  of  recreation  as  well  as  of  culture. 
Between  study  and  recreation  he  drew  a  sharp  line, 
regarding  the  one  as  work  and  the  other  as  play,— but 
he  knew  how  to  make  the  play  profitable,  using  it  to 
rest  the  mind  and  yet  as  a  stimulus  and  the  means 
of  mental  development.  He  who  reduced  the  opera- 
tions of  the  intellect  to  their  laws  was  not  disposed 
to  leave  anything  to  chance,  but  reduced  conduct  to 
maxims,  and  even  gave  rules  for  table-talk.  As  he 
desired  the  mind  to  have  room  for  spontaneous  activity 
at  table  and  during  walks,  he  wished  to  avoid  the 
consideration  of  abstract  and  profound  themes  on 
such  occasions,  and  to  give  free  play  to  the  imagina- 
tion. Reading  or  meditation  he  regarded  as  injurious 
then,  and  he  also  says,  "  Music  at  the  feast  of  great 
lords  is  the  most  insipid  nonsense  which  gluttony  ever 
invented."      His  delight   at   table  was  in  lively  and 


f 


4 


I 


MAXIMS    FOR    TABLE-TALK. 


171 


cheerful  conversation,  of  which  he  gives  the  natural 
order  as  follows  : — First,  the  news  of  the  day,  namely, 
home  news,  then  foreign,  whether  received  by  letter  or 
from  papers;  second,  discussion  of  subjects;  third, 
wit  and  humour,  so  that  the  repast  may  end  with 
laughter,  which  is  calculated  to  promote  digestion. 
For  a  banquet,  he  gives  the  following  : — A  subject 
should  be  chosen  which  will  interest  all  and  give  to 
each  one  an  opportunity  of  saying  something ;  there 
must  be  no  dead  silence,  but  only  momentary  pauses ; 
the  subjects  should  not  be  varied  often,  for  at  the  end 
the  mind  takes  pleasure  in  reviewing  the  course  of 
the  conversatioQ ;  an  entertaining  subject  should  be 
nearly  exhausted  before  it  is  dropped,  though  if  the 
conversation  begins  to  drag,  one  must  understand  how 
to  introduce  an  allied  subject ;  there  should  be  no 
dogmatic  spirit,  and  as  the  aim  of  the  conversation  is 
play  rather  than  work,  the  tendency  to  be  dogmatic 
should  be  checked  by  a  skilfully  applied  joke ;  in 
serious  disputes,  which  cannot  be  avoided,  care  must 
be  taken  that  they  are  carried  on  properly,  so  that  the 
disputants  may  not  lose  respect  for  each  other,  which 
depends  more  on  the  tone  of  the  voice  than  on  the 
subject  under  discussion. 

Our  philosopher  knew  how  to  practise  as  well  as  to 
formulate  these  rules.  In  order  to  make  the  occasion 
cheerful  and  to  avoid  being  left  to  his  meditations, 
he  generally  had  two  guests  for  dinner ;  on  special  occa- 
sions there  were  five,  his  household  arrangements  not 
being  adapted  to  entertain  more  than  six  persons. (^^) 
It  was  only  on  his  birthday  that  this  number  was 
exceeded.  He  regarded  Chesterfield' s  rule  as  excellent ; 
namely,  that  the  company  at  table,  the  host  included, 


-r 

I 


1/ 


172 


THE   LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL   KANT, 


sliould  not  be  less  than  the  Graces  nor  more  than  the 
Muses ;  and  he  thought  that  for  the  most  enjoyable 
company  the  number  of  the  Graces  should  not  be 
greatly  exceeded.  It  was  his  wish  that  the  guests 
should  come  for  the  ; special  purpose  of  enjoying  each 
other's  company,  not  for  the  sake  of  the  eating,  which 
they  could  do  at  home. 

For  many  years  he  ate  only  one  meal  a  day,  but 
that  with  a  keen  appetite.  The  dinner  usually  con- 
sisted of  three  courses,  namely,  soup,  dried  pulse  with 
fish,  and  a  roast,  together  with  a  dessert  of  cheese, 
to  which  fruit  was  added  in  summer.  When  he  enter- 
tained a  large  company,  an  extra  course  was  provided 
and  also  cake.  Every  guest  had  a  pint  bottle  of  wine 
beside  his  plate,  red  or  white,  whichever  he  preferred. 
Kant  had  the  reputation  of  being  a  very  hearty  eater, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  for  many  years, 
aside  from  the  tea  in  the  morning,  he  took  no  other 
refreshment  between  his  dinners.  He  always  drank 
wine  and  water  at  dinner,  never  beer,  against  which  he 
had  a  strong  prejudice.  If  he  heard  of  any  one  who 
died  in  the  prime  of  life,  Kant  would  say,  "He 
probably  drank  beer;"  and  if  the  indisposition  of  a 
person  was  mentioned,  he  was  apt  to  ask,  "  Does  he 
drink  beer  at  night?  "  He  regarded  that  beverage  as 
slow  poison. 

As  a  host,  Kant  made  special  efforts  to  please  his 
guests,  and  noted  their  favourite  dishes,  in  order  that 
he  might  provide  them  when  they  appeared  at  the 
table  the  next  time.  In  the  invitation  of  his  guests  he 
manifested  unusual  delicacy,  never  inviting  them  on 
the  preceding  day,  lest  the  acceptance  of  his  invitation 
at  that  time  might  interfere  with  accepting  any  other 


I' 


SUBJECTS   DISCUSSED   AT   TABLE. 


173 


invitation  which  they  might  receive;  but  he  always 
invited  them  on  the  day  their  company  was  desired. 
For  awhile  Professor  Kraus  dined  with  him  daily, 
Sundays  excepted ;  yet  Kant  had  him  invited  every 
morning,  thinking  that  this  was  required  by  politeness ; 
and  though  Kant  was  a  regular  Sunday  guest  at  the 
house  of  an  English  friend,  named  Motherby  (Green's 
partner),  this  friend,  in  deference  to  his  views,  was 
careful  to   send    him    an    invitation    every    Sunday 


morning. 


His  usual  guests,  knowing  his  rigid  punctuality, 
were  careful  to  arrive  in  time ;  and  promptly  at  one 
o'clock  Lampe  would  open  the  door  and  say,  "  The 
soup  is  on  the  table."  In  passing  from  the  study  to 
the  dining-room  the  weather  was  the  usual  subject  of 
conversation,  the  theme  being  continued  after  they 
were  seated.  This  was  one  of  his  favourite  topics. 
He  made  his  observations  of  its  state  with  curious 
care,  frequently  consulting  the  barometer  and  thermo- 
meter, which  were  hung  conveniently  near  for  that 
purpose ;  he  discussed  the  influence  of  the  weather  on 
health  and  mortality,  and  liked  to  have  his  guests 
speak  on  the  same  topic.  Instead  of  regarding  it  as  a 
hackneyed  theme  which  should  be  excluded  from 
society,  he  thought  it  the  most  natural  topic  to  intro- 
duce a  conversation.  Other  subjects  might  seem 
abrupt,  but  the  weather  naturally  suggests  itself  when 
one  has  just  come  into  the  house,  and  especially  is  it 
an  excellent  and  easy  theme  for  young  persons  and 
those  easily  embarrassed. (^*) 

When  seated  at  table,  Kant  would  say,  '•'  Now, 
gentlemen  !  "  which  was  the  signal  for  beginning  the 
dinner.     He   wanted   his  guests  to  feel  as  much  at 


174 


BRILLIANT   CONVERSATIONALIST. 


175 


THE    LIFE    OP   I5JMANUEL    KANT. 


It 


(I 


i 


w 


home  as  if  in  tlieir  own  house ;  ceremony  was  banished, 
and  each  guest,  contrary  to  the  rules  prevalent  in 
society,  was  expected  to  help  himself.  Kant  set  the 
example  of  freedom  from  restraint,  to  promote  which 
he  sometimes  used  provincialisms,  and  encouraged  his 
guests  to  do  the  same.  As  no  ladies  were  present,  the 
conventional  forms  of  mixed  society  were  the  more 
easily  laid  aside. 

Careful  as  Kant  was  to  provide  for  the  appetite  of 
his  guests,  he  was  still  more  solicitous  to  promote 
their  social  enjoyment.  In  his  estimation,  hearty 
cheerfulness  was  the  best  spice  for  the  entertainment, 
and  towards  furnishing  this  he  did  his  part.  Not  only 
was  he  fond  of  talking,  but  he  also  had  remarkable 
conversational  powers ;  and  even  if  his  guests  had 
little  to  say,  he  was  satisfied  if  they  were  good  listeners. 
Philosophy  was  usually  excluded,  since  it  required  too 
much  reflection,  and  he  rarely  made  mention  of  his 
own  books.  It  usually  displeased  him  to  hear  unfavour- 
able comments  on  others ;  nor  did  he  like  allusions  to 
crimes  or  great  evils  of  society,  since  they  suggest  un- 
pleasant reflections.  But  he  liked  to  consider  the  news 
of  the  day,  especially  if  political  in  its  character ; 
medicine  and  sanitary  affairs ;  accounts  of  travel, 
together  with  the  peculiarities  of  countries,  people, 
and  individuals  ;  general  literature ;  and  also  ordinary 
topics,  such  as  the  preparation  of  food.  His  fondness 
for  tracing  etymologies,  as  well  as  for  humour  and  the 
ludicrous,  was  displayed  to  advantage  at  the  table. 
His  satire  was  keen,  but  amusing  rather  than  stinging. 
He  understood  the  art  of  combining  the  serious  and 
the  ludicrous,  without  detriment  to  either.  A  rich 
fund  of  anecdotes  was  at  his  command ;  he  told  them 


admirably,  relating  with  most  pleasure  such  as  took  a 
humorous  turn.  His  favourite  Latin  and  German 
poets  were  also  made  tributary  to  the  enlivening  of 
the  entertainment.  Sometimes  he  became  deeply 
interested  in  a  subject,  spoke  with  much  animation, 
and  for  the  time  forgot  his  dinner.  In  fact,  Kant  was 
the  most  entertaining  of  hosts,  as  well  as  the  most 
critical  of  philosophers,  and  his  guests  describe  his 
table-talk  with  an  enthusiasm  such  as  could  only  have 
been  inspired  by  a  man  of  rare  conversational  powers. 
He  surely  must  have  had  remarkable  social  qualities 
who  daily  interested,  instructed,  and  charmed  his 
guests  by  the  hour.  The  philosopher  was  lost  in  the 
agreeable  companion,  and  the  isolated  student  in  the 
man  of  society  and  the  briUiant  conversationahst.  But 
what  to  him  was  a  mere  play  of  the  faculties  would 
to  many  others  have  been  work;  for  in  the  close 
distinctions,  the  careful  analysis,  the  broad  gene- 
ralizations, the  sententious  and  wise  suggestions, 
the  philosopher  would  appear  in  spite  of  himself,  so 
that  even  in  his  play  he  could  not  get  out  of  the 
atmosphere  of  his  study  altogether.  His  ready 
memory  brought  to  his  command  rich  stores  of  learn- 
ing gathered  from  various  departments  of  literature 
and  science,  and  the  whole  was  illuminated  and  per- 
meated by  his  genial  spirit.  Here,  as  well  as  in  his 
books,  the  marvellous  fertility  of  his  mind  was 
revealed.  "  Even  on  his  guests  he  lavished  an  incal- 
culable wealth  of  ideas ;  he  often  gave  utterance  to 
numerous  sagacious  thoughts,  of  which  he  himself  was 
scarcely  conscious  afterwards,  or  which  he  did  not 
think  it  worth  while  to  expand  farther  or  to  prove." 
While  this  daily  meeting  with  a  few  select  friend 


s 


^ 


176 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


THE    SOCIAL   CIRCLE. 


177 


L 


occurred  only  during  the  last  seventeen  years  of  his 
life,  he  occupied  a  prominent  social  position  for  over 
fifty  years.  Before  he  had  his  own  table  he  accepted 
invitations  frequently ;  subsequently  he  found  more 
pleasure  in  the  company  of  his  own  guests  than  in 
general  society,  which  he,  consequently,  entered  only 
occasionally  after  he  was  sixty-three  years  of  age. 
Company  was  a  necessity  to  him,  in  order  that  he 
might  give  expression  to  his  views  and  exercise  his 
social  nature.  Rink,  one  of  his  guests,  says,  ''  For 
the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  Kant  belonged  to 
the  world  only  during  dinner ;  and  then,  too,  he  was, 
in  a  certain  sense,  in  his  study.  The  rest  of  his  time 
was  devoted  to  speculation,  even  when  he  was  engaged 
in  considering  subjects  of  general  interest.  On  this 
account  his  views  were  generally  very  attractive,  those 
of  the  most  ordinary  affairs  not  excepted,  and  his  con- 
versation was  as  entertaining  as  it  was  instructive. 
But  he  gave  himself  to  company  rather  because  it  was 
a  necessity  to  him  than  for  the  sake  of  learning  anything 
from  society."  Formerly  he  went  into  company  in  the 
evening;  but  these  social  entertainments  generally 
lasted  so  long  as  not  merely  to  interfere  seriously  with 
his  studies,  but  also  with  his  sleep,  and  therefore  he 
generally  avoided  them  in  later  years. 

The  circle  in  which  he  moved  was  not  confined  to 
scholars,  but  included  persons  of  various  occupations 
and  degrees  of  attainment.  Class  distinctions  were 
much  more  marked  in  Germany,  during  last  century, 
than  at  present,  and  the  nobility  were  more  aristocratic 
and  exclusive ;  but  in  spite  of  his  humble  origin,  Kant's 
intellectual  and  social  superiority  made  him  a  frequent 
and  welcome  guest  in  noble  families,  who  felt  compli- 


mented by  the  presence  of  so  eminent  and  entertaining 
a  scholar.  In  meeting  merchants,  seamen,  military 
and  civil  ofl&cers,  literary  and  scientific  men,  in  society, 
he  not  only  received  new  impulses,  but  also  had  an 
opportunity  to  use  his  varied  attainments  and  to 
exercise  and  develop  the  popular  elements  of  his  nature. 
With  all  classes  he  became  a  favourite,  and  with  some 
of  the  highest  he  became  quite  intimate,  including 
generals,  governors  of  the  province,  and  the  first  of 
the  nobihty.  Those  who  occupied  the  most  prominent 
positions  and  held  the  highest  rank  were  not  ashamed 
to  sit  at  his  feet  as  learners  and  to  do  honour  to  his- 
ripe  scholarship.  It  is  natural  that  his  fame  and  his 
learning  should  have  especially  attracted  men  of  intel- 
lectual tastes  and  aspirations,  and  he  frequently  asso- 
ciated with  professors,  students,  ministers,  physicians, 
authors,  and  booksellers,  was  free  and  lively  with 
all,  appreciated  intellect  wherever  he  found  it,  and  his 
superior  knowledge  of  men  and  his  versatility  enabled 
him  to  adapt  himself  to  the  most  varied  tastes  and 
degrees  of  mental  attainments.  The  world  of  children 
he  scarcely  knew  except  from  his  observation  of  them 
during  his  walks ;  nevertheless  when  he  met  the  little 
ones  in  the  homes  whose  hospitahty  he  accepted,  he 
made  an  effort  to  adapt  himself  to  them,  and  was 
so  successful  in  winning  their  confidence  that  they 
anticipated  his  coming  with  glee,  and  gladly  talked  to 
him  about  their  studies. 

While  the  speculative  works  of  Kant  give  no  idea  of 
the  popular  elements  in  him,  he  wrote  other  books 
which  reveal  these  qualities  almost  as  clearly  as  they 
were  seen  in  his  social  intercourse.  That  this  dry 
metaphysician  could  also  be  sprightly  and  popular  is 

N 


{ 


178 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


ATTRACTIVE    COMPANION. 


179 


evident  from  Lis  book  on  "  The  Emotion  of  the  Beauti- 
ful and  the  Sublime."  Rosenkranz  portrays  the  author 
as  he  imagines  him  to  have  appeared  when  this  book 
was  pubHshed,  in  1764,  at  the  age  of  forty.  (^^) 
"  Kant,  at  the  time  he  wrote  this  book  and  so 
diligently  enlarged  it,  seems  to  have  studied  man  in 
his  empirical  reality  with  much  pleasure.  The  very 
contrast  with  his  former  abstract  studies  probably 
made  his  naturally  naive  and  penetrating  observation 
the  more  keen.  Imagine  the  '  beautiful  magister,'  as 
they  called  him  in  the  city,  in  elegant  attire,  when,  his 
morning  lectures  being  finished,  he  visited  a  restaurant 
before  dinner,  took  a  cup  of  tea  or  coffee,  and  played 
a  game  of  billiards ;  picture  him  to  yourself  after  this 
at  table,  entertaining  his  companions  with  his  humour ; 
and  then,  after  he  has  worked  again  and  taken  his 
walk,  see  him  in  the  evening,  as  Herder  describes  him, 
shining  in  all  classes  of  society  !  Would  one  not 
believe  that  I  am  not  speaking  of  last  century,  least 
of  all  of  Kant,  but  of  a  philosopher  of  our  own  times 
in  Paris  ?  "  The  company  which  he  entered,  as  well 
as  his  books,  was  a  study  to  him,  and  it  was  the  means 
of  enlarging  his  views  of  human  nature.  The  same 
author  says,  "  It  is  astonishing  how,  without  ever 
having  travelled,  he  studied  the  whole  world,  and 
became  acquainted  with  every  people,  with  every  class, 
and  with  every  important  city.'* 

The  time  just  described,  namely,  when  he  was  forty 
years  of  age,  was  probably  his  most  brilliant  social 
period.  Aspiring,  spirited,  and  versatile,  he  was 
hearty  in  his  social  relations  as  he  was  profound  in  his 
studies.  It  was  at  this  time  tliat  Hamann  wrote, 
''  Kant  loves  the  truth  as  much  as  he  does  the  tone  of 


good  society."  Herder  was  his  student  during  this 
period,  and  his  enthusiastic  account  of  the  philosopher 
introduces  him  to  us  as  a  popular  lecturer  and  brilliant 
companion,  as  well  as  a  metaphysician.  Much  of  his 
sprightliness  and  vigour  were  lost  in  old  age;  but 
his  fondness  for  company  and  his  social  influence  con- 
tinued as  long  as  he  was  able  to  enter  society.  We 
have  a  sketch  of  him  in  the  social  circle  at  the  age  of 
seventy,  which  represents  him  as  still  lively  and  enter- 
taining. In  1794  one  who  belonged  to  the  number  of 
his  guests  invited  him  to  his  wedding.  "  Seated  at 
table,  opposite  the  bridal  couple,  he  not  only  enter- 
tained them  with  continual  conversation,  but  the  entire 
company,  which  was  pretty  large,  listened  eagerly  to 
his  remarks  made  in  a  low  tone ;  when  he  lost  himself 
too  deeply  in  thought,  he  would  skilfully  and  grace- 
fully change  the  current  by  means  of  a  joke,  which 
gave  occasion  for  a  laugh."  (^^) 

Another  account  of  the  philosopher  about  the  same 
time,  or  perhaps  a  few  years  later,  reveals  him  as  he 
appeared  in  his  own  house.  "  He  receives  you  kindly, 
converses  on  the  most  sublime  or  the  most  ordinary 
affairs,  as  you  please,  and  does  not  become  impatient 
at  your  long  stay.  How  significant  this  patience  is  in 
the  case  of  a  man  like  Kant,  you  can  imagine  when 
you  remember  that  his  name  is  known  from  the  rising 
to  the  setting  of  the  sun,  and  his  fame  has  spread 
everywhere  ;  that  nearly  every  traveller  desires  to  see 
him,  and  that  he  rarely  refuses  any  one  this  privilege ; 
and  that  among  these  curious  ones  are,  no  doubt,  many 
who  know  little  or  nothing  of  him  except  his  name,  and 
who  think  of  the  great  Kant  only  as  a  giant.  ...  If 
you  come  with  a  letter  of  recommendation,  or  if  he 

N  2 


t 


180 


THE    LIFE   OP   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


takes  a  fancy  to  you,  he  will  probably  invite  you  to  his 
small  dinner-party ;  for  he  rarely  eats  alone,  but  has 
one  or  two  friends,  though  never  a  large  company. 
These  small  gatherings  have  this  pleasant  feature  that, 
independent  of  what  a  dainty  jmlate  may  find  there, 
they  have  great  attractions  for  the  mind,  since  Kant 
makes  a  constant  effort  to  entertain  his  friends.  And 
when  I  tell  you  that  this  man  unites  a  comprehensive 
genius  with  a  great  mass  of  choice  knowledge  gathered 
from  all  branches  of  science  and  literature ;  that  his 
conversation  is  most  agreeable,  and  that  he  speaks 
much  and  with  pleasure  ;  then  you  will  readily  believe 
me  that  a  person  cannot  hear  him  enough,  and  that, 
without  longing  for  them,  one  is  reminded  of  the 
symposia  of  the  wise  men  of  Greece.  He  is  particu- 
larly fond  of  physical  geography  and  politics ;  espe- 
cially are  political  affairs  his  favourite  themes,  or  rather 
his  recreation.  A  large  part  of  his  spare  hours, 
especially  Sunday  forenoons,  he  spends  in  reading 
newspapers  and  other  periodical  literature.  It  is 
exceedingly  interesting  and  instructive  to  hear  his 
opinions  of  the  subjects  discussed,  for  he  throws  light 
on  many  points,  and  through  his  keen  insight  much 
which  seems  insignificant  becomes  highly  important ; 
he  espies  unsuspected  causes  of  effects  which  seem  to 
be  altogether  heterogeneous ;  and  finally  he  draws 
conclusions  from  the  present  respecting  the  future, 
some  of  which  have  proved  to  be  only  too  true. 
Especially  must  his  remarks,  descriptions,  and  anec- 
dotes, respecting  geography,  particularly  physical 
geography,  rivet  the  attention  of  every  one."  The 
writer  says  that  Kant  is  acquainted  with  the  "  situa- 
tion, climate,  government,  and  remarkable  and  peculiar 


HIS    SOCIETY   MUCH    SOUGHT. 


181 


V' 


< 


features  of   all   lands,"    and    adds,    "You    can    well 
imagine  that  every  intelligent  person  desires  and  seeks 
the  company  and  conversation  of  such  a  man.     The 
first  merchants  of  Konigsberg  seek  to  draw  him  into 
their  circle,  and  he  by  no  means  lives  like  an  anchoret 
in  the  lonely  Princess  Street.     Gladly  and  frequently 
he  enters  society  ...  and  is,  as  it  were,  the  soul  of  these 
social  circles ;  for  he  likes  to  talk  alone  and  to  mono- 
polize the  conversation,  which  in  others  is  generally 
regarded  as  a  fault,  but  is  gladly  seen  in  his  case." 
We  are  not  surprised  that  the  author  of  this  sketch  says 
that  one  would  hardly  believe  this  merry  companion  to 
be  the  author  of  the  "  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason."  (^7) 
Indeed,  this  bachelor   philosopher    was    declared  by 
friends  to  be  the  most  agreeable  man  they  had  ever 
met  in  society. 

While  a  dogmatic  tone  in  company  offended  him, 
direct  and  persistent  contradiction  angered  him.     His 
great  attainments,  his  social  position,  his  fame  and 
influence,    gave    him    confidence    in    himself   and    a 
supremacy   which   could   not  easily  be  disputed.     If 
contradicted,  he  was  sometimes  free  in  showing  his 
displeasure,    and    in  giving  unmistakable  proof   that 
his    emotional    nature    was    not    wholly    suppressed. 
Kant  knew    full    well    what    was   due  to   him,    and 
he    demanded    from    others   that   respect   which   he 
was   himself   ready   to   manifest   towards    them.     In 
his  advanced  years  he  required  that    the    strangers 
who  desired  to  meet  him  at  the  houses  of  friends  should 
first  call  on  him,  a  rule    to  which    persons  high  in 
authority   were    no    exception.      Mcolavius,    Kant's 
publisher  in  Konigsberg,  invited  him  to  his  house  to 
meet  Count  F.  L.  von  Stolberg,  who  was  on  his  way 


182 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


RELATIVES. 


to  St.  Petersburg ;  but  as  the  count  had  not  called  on 
him,  he  refused  to  go.  When,  however,  on  the  count's 
return  to  Konigsberg,  he  visited  the  philosopher,  Kant 
accepted  the  invitation  of  his  publisher  to  meet  the 
distinguished  nobleman. 

A  spirit  of  servility  and  expressions  of  excessive 
devotion  and  humiliation  were  common  even  among 
scholars.  In  proportion  as  genuine  worth  decreased, 
the  love  of  its  counterfeit,  empty  titles,  seemed  to 
increase,  together  with  the  tendency  to  use  hyper- 
bolical expressions  of  regard.  Kant,  especially  in  his 
later  years,  despised  this  spirit,  whether  it  appeared  in 
society  or  literature,  and  desired  a  pohteness  which 
was  deeper  than  the  surface,  and  a  refinement  in  which 
there  was  truth  and  honesty,  heartiness  and  indepen- 
dence. 

But  little  can  be  said  of  the  reflation  of  Kant  to  his 
kindred.  Between  him  and  his  brother  there  was  no 
intimacy  while  the  latter  was  a  student.  Borowski, 
who  lived  in  K5nigsberg,  says,  "  Here  their  relation  and 
intercourse  amounted  to  nothing  more  than  that  the 
younger  heard  the  lectures  of  his  brother  Immanuel, 
and  after  the  lectures  they  perhaps  exchanged  a  few 
words  with  each  other."  For  many  years  his  rela- 
tives in  Konigsberg  received  no  attention  or  recogni- 
tion from  him,  and  he  rarely  spoke  of  them  to  his 
acquaintances.  Though  he  lived  in  the  same  city  with 
his  sisters,  it  is  said  that  he  did  not  speak  to  them 
for  twenty-five  years.  (J^)  They  had  been  servant- 
girls,  and  had  married  according  to  their  rank ;  but 
however  illiterate  they  were,  and  however  humble 
their  station,  this  conduct  is  surprising,  and  the 
most  charitable  construction  that  can  be  put  on  the 


183 


t| 


i 


matter  suggests  a  weakness  in  this  man  who  was  so 
truly  great  in  many  respects.  Jachmann  attempts  to 
explain  this  treatment  of  his  sisters,  by  the  statement 
that  his  studies  and  position  had  taken  him  altogether 
out  of  the  sphere  of  his  family ;  that  he  was  at  that 
time  in  such  moderate  circumstances  that  he  could 
not  give  them  the  help  which  they  probably  expected ; 
and  that  he  feared  lest  he  might  prove  a  burden  to 
them;  bat  such  reasons  have  little  or  no  weight  where 
there  is  any  family  affection.  In  his  old  age  he  held 
more  communication  with  them,  and  also  gave  them 
pecuniary  aid.  He  presented  to  each  niece  a  wedding- 
gift,  and  bestowed  a  pension  on  his  younger  sister,  as 
well  as  on  the  widow  of  his  brother,  giving  annually 
two  hundred  dollars  or  more  to  his  relatives,  who  also 
inherited  the  greater  part  of  his  property. 

His  younger  sister  was  brought  to  his  house  some 
six  months  before  his  death,  in  order  to  assist  in 
nursing  him.  She  was  six  years  his  junior,  and 
resembled  him  strikingly  ;  in  early  life  they  had  been 
much  attached  to  each  other.  When  brought  to  his 
house  it  seemed  to  require  a  special  effort  on  his  part 
to  realize  that  she  was  his  sister ;  when  he  recognized 
her  as  such  he  apologized  for  her  lack  of  culture.  (^^) 

When  we  consider  the  breadth  and  depth  of  Kant's 
knowledge,  his  profound  views  of  human  nature,  and 
his  observations  in  society,  we  are  surprised  that  in 
his  views  of  woman  he  did  not  rise  above  the  ordinary 
prejudices  of  the  day.  Her  intellectual  and  social 
position  was  lower  then  than  at  present,  though  there 
are  still  many  in  Germany  who  have  a  mortal  dread 
that  the  higher  education  of  woman  may  transcend 
the  limits  fixed  by  nature  for  her  intellectual  develop- 


r 


184 


THE    LIFE    OF    IM MANUEL    KANT. 


VIEWS   OF   WOMAN. 


185 


ment.  Those  who  expect  from  Kant  broad  views 
respecting  woman,  must  not  forget  to  study  his 
opinions  in  the  Hght  of  that  day ;  even  then  they  will 
likely  conclude  that  the  philosophic  bachelor,  limited 
in  his  observations  of  humanity  to  Konigsberg,  early 
losing  his  mother,  and  avoiding  all  intercourse  with 
his  sisters,  was  not  the  man  to  do  justice  to  woman. 
Touching  many  womanly  qualities  he  speaks  beauti- 
fully and  justly,  saying  much  that  is  apt  and  striking ; 
but,  taken  as  a  whole,  his  views  of  her  are  unworthy 
of  his  great  name. 

In  his  book  on  "  The  Emotion  of  the  Beautiful  and 
the  Sublime,"  he  characterizes  the  female  as  the  beau- 
tiful, and  the  male  as,  essentially,  the  noble  and  the 
sublime  sex ;  and  his  effort  to  be  consistent  with  this 
classification  makes  him  unjust,  so  that  he  fails  to  dis- 
cover the  noble  and  sublime  qualities  so  often  found 
in  woman.  He  regards  the  difference  of  sex  as  the 
peculiar  charm  of  woman,  and  places  a  low  estimate 
on  her  mental  attractiveness.  She  may  study  pro- 
foundly, but  it  will  be  at  the  expense  of  her  real 
charms.  *' A  woman  who  has  her  head  full  of  Greek, 
or  who  can  dispute  learnedly  on  mechanics,  might  also 
have  a  beard,  for  this  would  probably  help  to  give 
more  fully  that  look  of  profundity  which  she  seeks  to 
obtain."  (^°)  ''The  beautiful  understanding  chooses, 
as  objects  of  study,  whatever  is  related  to  the  finer 
feelings,  and  leaves  abstract  speculation  or  knowledge, 
which  is  useful  but  dry,  to  the  diligent,  thorough, 
and  deep  understanding;  therefore  woman  will  not 
study  geometry." 

His  notion  of  woman's  education  corresponds  with 
his  opinion  of  her  intellectual  capacities  and  mission. 


\ 


I 


The  view  of  a  map  of  the  world  is  to  be  made  pleasant 
to  her,  and  a  general  and  superficial  knowledge  of 
the  earth  is  all  that  women  need.  "Neither  is  it 
necessary  for  them  to  know  anything  more  of  the 
universe  than  is  required  to  make  a  view  of  the 
heavens,  on  a  beautiful  evening,  affecting,  after  they 
have  in  some  measure  apprehended  the  fact  that  there 
are  other  worlds  than  ours,  and  that  in  them  beautiful 
creatures  are  found."  Her  science  is  not  reasoning, 
but  the  emotions ;  and  he  says  with  respect  to  her 
education,  "  There  should  never  be  cold  and  specula- 
tive instruction,  but  always  emotions,  and  these  should 
be  such  as  lie  as  near  as  possible  to  her  sexual  rela- 
tions." 

He  does  not  regard  woman  capable  of  great  moral 
strength,  and  thinks  that  she  will  not  avoid  evil 
because  it  is  wrong,  but  because  it  is  ugly.  For 
women  there  must  be  "nothing  of  shall,  nothing  of 
must,  nothing  of  duty.  .  .  .  They  do  a  thing  only 
because  it  pleases  them,  and  the  art  consists  in  making 
them  love  only  what  is  good.  I  scarcely  believe  that 
the  beautiful  sex  has  capacity  for  principles ;  and  I 
hope  that  in  making  this  statement  I  do  not  offend, 
for  these  are  very  rare  even  among  men.  Instead  of 
these.  Providence  has  put  into  their  bosom  kind  and 
beneficent  emotions,  a  fine  sense  of  propriety,  and  an 
obliging  soul.  By  no  means  let  sacrifices  and  grand 
self-restraint  be  required.  A  man  must  never  tell  his 
wife  if  he  risks  a  part  of  his  wealth  for  the  sake  of  a 
friend.  Why  should  he  fetter  her  cheerful  talkative- 
ness by  burdening  her  mind  with  weighty  secrets 
which  belong  only  to  him  ?  Even  many  of  her  faults 
are,  so  to  speak,  beautiful  faults." 


fj 


18G 


THE    LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


When  woman  remained  in  what  he  regarded  as  her 
proper  sphere,  he  spoke  of  her  kindly  and  respectfully. 
Heilsberg,  his  friend  from  his  youth,  said,  "  He  was 
no  great  admirer  of  the  female  sex,  and  declared  that 
they  deserved  esteem  nowhere  except  at  home,  and 
for  their  domestic  virtues."  Regarding  their  social 
influence  as  refining,  he  advised  his  young  friends  to 
associate  with  ladies  of  culture.  He  said,  **  A  man 
has  taste  for  his  own  sake ;  a  woman  makes  herself 
an  object  of  taste  for  every  one."  But  while  admit- 
ting this  refining  influence  of  ladies'  society,  he  did  not 
want  them  to  converse  with  him  on  learned  topics, 
and  disliked  to  hear  them  speak  about  his  "  Kritik;" 
and  though  he  spoke  frequently  and  even  passionately 
on  the  French  Revolution,  he  did  not  want  a  woman 
to  talk  to  him  on  the  subject.  Once  a  lady  persisted 
in  speaking  with  him  on  learned  affairs,  which  he 
as  persistently  tried  to  avoid ;  observing  this,  she 
remarked  that  women  might  be  learned  as  well  as 
men,  and  that  there  had  been  scholarly  women.  Kant 
answered,  "  Yes,  indeed,  such  as  they  were  ! "  At 
another  time,  having  discussed  at  length  the  prepara- 
tion of  food,  one  of  his  favourite  topics,  a  lady  highly 
esteemed  by  him  said,  "  It  really  seems,  dear  professor, 
as  if  you  regarded  all  of  us  as  mere  cooks."  He  then 
spoke  of  cooking  and  its  supervision  as  an  honour  to 
any  woman,  and  presented  such  cogent  reasons  as  to 
win  the  favour  of  all  the  ladies  present. 

In  society  he  frequently  showed  much  attention  to 
ladies,  and  gave  evidence  of  fondness  for  their  company. 
Nor  was  the  critical  philosopher  blind  to  the  fascinations 
of  artless  and  beautiful  young  ladies  ;  on  the  contrary, 
he  took  pleasure  in  conversing  with  them.     He  prized 


H 


woman's  sphere. 


187 


the  presence  of  women  chiefly  as  a  means  of  recreation; 
and  he  says  that  the  society  of  women  is  not  in- 
tended for  conversation  which  leads  to  reflection,  but 
for  the  recreation  of  men.  The  ladies  whom  he  appre- 
ciated most  were  those  who  were  endowed  with  taste  and 
with  the  power  to  charm,  but  who  nevertheless  culti- 
vated the  domestic  virtues.  Holding  that  womankind 
has  a  passion  for  dominion,  he  said,  "  Woman,  because 
she  always  wants  to  rule,  does  not  hesitate  to  marry 
a  fool."  Instead  of  seeking  to  rule,  he  wants  her  to  be 
humble,  retiring,  and  satisfied  with  her  domestic  sphere. 

Sometimes  woman  was  the  subject  of  his  playful 
humour.  He  compared  her  with  a  town  clock,  saying 
that  she  ought  to  be  like  one,  so  as  to  do  everything 
punctually,  to  the  very  minute ;  and  yet  not  like  one 
in  proclaiming  all  secrets  publicly.  Again,  he  com- 
pared her  with  a  snail,  declaring  that  she  should  be 
domestic  and  attached  to  her  home ;  and  yet  she  should 
not  be  like  a  snail  so  as  to  carry  all  she  has  on  her 
back.  Once  he  proved  to  some  ladies  that  they  could 
not  get  to  heaven ;  for,  he  said,  in  Revelation  it  is  stated 
that  there  was  silence  in  heaven  for  half  an  hour,  a 
condition  of  things  which  cannot  be  imagined  where 
there  are  women. 

Kant's  views  of  woman  were  too  common  in  Germany, 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  to  occasion  much  sur- 
prise; (^^)  and  they  did  not  affect  his  position  in 
society,  nor  did  he  forfeit  the  admiration  of  the 
ladies  of  Konigsberg.  His  learning  and  fame,  his 
cultivated  manners  and  remarkable  conversational 
powers,  won  their  admiration.  Countess  Kayserling 
was  only  one  of  the  many  ladies  who  admired  his 
superb  talents  and  sought  his  company.   After  his  death 


♦-« 


t 


.^  / 


} 


188 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


LOVE    AFFAIRS. 


18*^ 


a  noble  lady  wrote,  "  I  have  enjoyed  beautiful  and 
spirited  conversations  with  this  interesting  and  cele- 
brated man.  In  the  house  of  my  cousin  I  daily  con- 
versed with  this  lovely  companion.  .  .  .  Kant  was  a 
friend  of  this  family  for  thirty  years.  .  .  .  Often  I  saw 
him  there  when  he  was  so  entertaining  that  one  would 
never  have  suspected  in  him  the  deep  thinker  who 
brought  about  so  great  a  revolution  in  philosophy.  In 
conversation  he  sometimes  clothed  even  abstract  ideas 
in  a  lovely  garb,  and  he  lucidly  explained  every  state- 
ment he  made.  Charming  wit  was  at  his  command, 
and  occasionally  his  conversation  was  seasoned  with 
light  satire,  expressed  naturally  and  in  the  driest 
tone."(^^)  In  spite  of  his  dread  of  learned  women, 
some  ladies  studied  his  philosophy  and  became  his 
professed  disciples. 

With  such  views  of  woman  and  with  his  depreciation 
of  the  emotions,  we  cannot  expect  exalted  views  of 
marriage  from  the  bachelor  philosopher ;  he,  in  fact, 
regarded  it  rather  as  a  yoke  for  both  husband  and 
wife.(^^)  The  "  Anthropology ''  says,  "  He  who  loves, 
may  still  be  able  to  see ;  he  who  falls  in  love  is  un- 
avoidably blind  towards  the  beloved  object ;  but  in  a 
week  after  marriage  he  usually  regains  his  sight."  He 
gave  friends  the  advice  to  marry  from  rational  con- 
siderations rather  than  for  the  sake  of  the  affections ; 
and  he  enforced  his  advice  by  relating  the  experience 
of  a  man  who  had  married  twice,  his  first  wife  chiefly 
for  her  wealth,  the  second  because  he  loved  her, 
and  in  the  end  he  found  that  he  had  been  as  happy 
with  the  one  as  with  the  other.  Kant  thought  that 
money  would  outlast  beauty  and  all  other  charms,  and 
would  confer  enduring  benefits. 


u 


While  he  was  not  really  averse  to  marriage,  and 
sometimes  even  desired  to  aid  a  friend  in  the  choice 
of  a  companion,  he  nevertheless  extolled  the  advan- 
tages of  single  blessedness.  His  most  favourite  poem 
was  an  epithalamium,  which  praised  celibacy,  men- 
tioning as  illustrious  examples  the  Pope,  Democritus, 
Thales,  Descartes,  and  Leibnitz.  With  special  pleasure 
and  marked  emphasis  he  always  gave  the  thought, 
"  Permit  me  to  say  that  I  have  no  wife."(^*)  The 
poem  closed  with  a  special  reference  to  the  couple  for 
whose  wedding  it  was  written,  making  them  an  ex- 
ception to  the  general  rule  that  single  life  is  preferable 
to  marriage.  This  close  particularly  pleased  the 
philosopher,  and  he  frequently  quoted  it  when  anv 
exception  to  a  rule  was  discussed  : — 

**  The  rule  remains,  One  should  not  marry  ; 
But  we  except  this  worthy  pair."(^) 

Kant,  the  confirmed  bachelor,  might  extol  single 
blessedness ;  but  in  his  younger  years  he  had  doubts 
whether  he  himself  ought  not  to  form  an  exception  to 
the  rule  that  one  should  not  marry.  Even  the  critical 
metaphysician  was  not  wholly  a  stranger  to  the  emotion 
of  love.  One  of  his  books,  written  at  the  age  of  forty, 
contains  this  passage,  where  he  speaks  of  the  charms 
of  woman :  "  I  do  not  like  to  enter  into  detailed 
analyses  of  this  kind,  for  in  such  cases  the  author 
always  seems  to  describe  his  own  affections.  Where 
the  poet  writes  a  sonnet  to  become  master  of  his  heart, 
the  philosopher  writes  a  treatise."  It.  has  been  sus- 
pected that  this  was  written  when  he  was  moved  by 
the  attractions  of  some  lady.  There  are  evidences  of 
at  least  three  love  aflairs,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  he 
had  serious  intentions  of  marriage.     Once  his  heart 


190 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


was  touched  by  a  gentle  and  attractive  widow,  who  was 
visiting  relatives  in  Konigsberg.     Kant  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  she  would  make  him  a  suitable  com- 
panion, and  he  would  have  liked  to  marry  her;  but  he 
who   was  so    prompt   in    other  affairs,   weighed  this 
serious  matter  so  philosophically,    and  to    determine 
whether  he  could  afford  to  marry,  he   estimated  his 
income  and  expenses  so  mathematically,  that  while  he 
was  still  trying  to  solve  the  knotty  problems  involved, 
the  charming  widow  left  the  city  and  married  another 
man.     The  second  time  he  was  captivated  by  a  pretty 
Westphalian  maiden,  who  came  to  Konigsberg  as  the 
travelling-companion  of  a  noble  lady.     She  was  clever 
and   had   received    a   careful    domestic  training,  and 
Kant  repeatedly  gave  evidence  that  he  took  pleasure 
in  her  society.     It  is  probable  that  in  theory  it  was 
already  settled  that  she  should  be  Mrs.  Kant,  but  his 
matrimonial  did  not  surpass  his  mechanical  skill ;  he 
again  delayed  his  proposal,  and  she  was  already  on  the 
border  of  Westphalia  before  he  knew  of  her  departure. 
At  another  time  he  was  disposed  to  marry  a  lady  who 
lived  in   Konigsberg;    but  on  a  nearer  acquaintance 
she  lost  her  attractions,  and  he  regarded  her  as  unfit 
for  his  companion.  (^^) 

While  his  heart  may  have  held  secret  treasures  of 
affection,  those  mentioned  are  the  only  cases  known 
to  have  led  our  philosopher  to  the  verge  of  matrimony. 
If  he  had  been  less  deliberate,  he  might  have  had 
occasion  to  praise  married  life  as  he  did  the  single 
state.  After  these  three  experiences  in  love  affairs,  he 
seems  to  have  abandoned  all  thought  of  marriage,  and 
sometimes  he  would  leave  a  company  in  displeasure 
where,  even   in   sport,   he    was    exhorted   to  marry. 


EXHOKTATIONS   TO   MAliRY.. 


J. 


Some    of   his  friends   were  soHcitous  that  he  should 
enter  the  matrimonial  state ;  and  one  day,  when  Kant 
was  already  seventy,  a  friend  entered  his  room  and  asked 
him  whether  he  was  not  going  to  marry,  at  the  same 
time  presenting  the  advantages  of  the  married  state. 
The  philosopher,  however,  treated  the  affair  humor- 
ously.    The  friend  then  gave  him  a  small  pamphlet  on 
marriage,  declaring  that  he  had  published  it  chiefly  in 
the  hope  of  inducing  him  to  marry.     Kant  took  the 
pamphlet  politely,  paid  the  expense  of  its  pubhcation, 
and  treated  the  whole  matter  as  a  good  joke. 


V 


\ 


TUB    LIFE   OP   IMMANUEL   KAN'1\ 


CHAPTER  VII. 


KANT   AND    HIS   FKIENDS. 


Views  of  friendship-Excellence  of  heart -Countess  Kayserling— 
General  Meyer  -Green— Motherby—Hamann— Von  Hippel 
gcheffner— Borowski— Jachmann — Kraus. 

Kant  was  too  cold,  critical,  and  calculating,  to  be 
ardent  as  a  lover  or  a  friend ;  and  even  if  his  emotional 
nature  had  been  more  developed,  he  lived  too  much 
in  his  speculations,  and  yielded  too  little  to  the 
impulses  of  the  heart,  to  cultivate  enthusiastic  friend- 
ship.  ''  He  was  never  diffuse  in  compliments  or  in 
empty  phrases,  and  least  of  all  was  he  lavish  in  the 
effusions  of  his  heart.  His  friendship  always  remained 
good,  substantial  prose."  This  statement  of  Borowski 
is  confirmed  by  Wasianski :  ''  Kant  had  adopted  the 
delusive  paradox  of  Aristotle,  '  Uj  friends  !  there  are 
no  friends.'  He  seemed  not  to  give  the  expression 
friend  the  usual  meaning,  but  rather  to  regard  it 
somewhat  as  servant  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  letter." 
In  speaking  of  him  as  an  old  man,  he  adds,  "  Till 
now  he  had  been  sufficient  unto  himself ;  and  as  he 
knew  suffering  only  by  name,  he  had  needed  no  friend." 
But  in  his  helplessness,  Kant  admitted  that  Aristotle's 
paradox  is  false,  and  that  friendship  is  something  real. 
There   were   only   two   or  three   friends  whom  he 


/ 


VIEWS    OF    FRIENDSHIP. 


193 


addressed  with  the  familiar  "  Du "  (Thou),  which 
among  the  Germans  implies  special  intimacy ;  and 
these  had  all  been  fellow-students.  Even  in  their 
case  this  mode  of  address  at  last  became  distasteful 
to  him,  but  he  declared  that  it  was  then  unavoidable. 
To  his  most  intimate  guests  his  relation  was  that  of  a 
kind,  spirited,  and  familiar  acquaintance  rather  than 
of  affectionate  friendship.  In  one  of  his  books  he 
says  that  a  friend  in  need  is  much  to  be  desired  ;  '*  but 
it  is  also  a  great  burden  to  be  tied  to  the  fate  of  others 
and  to  be  loaded  with  their  needs."  Whilst  it  may 
be  consonant  with  love  to  accept  a  benefit  from  another, 
he  thinks  it  lowers  esteem  for  self,  and  that,  conse- 
quently, one  prefers  to  bear  his  burdens  alone  and 
to  conceal  them  from  others,  though  he  will  flatter 
himself  that  in  time  of  need  he  can  depend  on  the 
assistance  of  his  friend.  Expressions  like  these,  made 
when  he  was  seventy-three,  give  an  insight  into  his 
emotional  nature,  and  create  the  suspicion  that  he 
had  no  conception  of  a  love  which  sacrifices  cheerfully, 
expects  no  recompense,  implies  no  subjection  on  the 
part  of  the  recipient,  has  its  source  in  the  very  nature 
of  the  heart,  and  finds  a  rich  reward  in  obeying  its  own 
impulses.  Instead  of  an  affectionate,  he  wants  a  moral 
friendship,  which  he  defines  as  the  full  confidence  of 
two  persons  in  each  other  in  the  mutual  communica- 
tion of  their  private  views  and  feelings  so  far  as  they 
harmonize  with  the  esteem  of  each  for  the  other. 
He  in  fact  makes  this  esteem,  and  not  affection,  the 
essence,  and  affirms  that  this  moral  friendship  which  he 
advocates  is  different  from  the  affectional.  His  friend- 
ship is  rather  a  matter  of  maxims  than  the  communion 
of  soul  with  soul. 

0 


«-^M 


-. ^         A 


l\ 


i 


194 


THK    lilFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


KINDNESS. 


195 


i 


{ 


( 


But  while  he  was  far  from  being  demonstrative  or 
impulsive  as  a  friend,  he  was  very  kind,  and  at  times 
obliging  to  an  unusual  degree.  Childlikeness  was 
one  of  his  most  marked  characteristics  ;  this  made 
him  frank  and  cordial,  though  the  rules  to  which  he 
rigidly  bound  himself  restrained  the  expressions  of  his 
heart.  His  truthfulness,  integrity,  and  sincerity,  were 
crowned  by  a  generous  nature;  but  he  had  so  disciplined 
this  nature  that  its  generosity  ran  in  the  grooves  of 
maxims,  instead  of  being  a  freely  flowing  spring 
bubbling  spontaneously  from  the  heart.  While  later 
in  life  the  halo  of  glory  thrown  around  him  by  his 
great  fame  no  doubt  helped  to  inspire  that  enthusiasm 
with  which  numerous  admirers  speak  of  him,  the 
devoted  and  lasting  attachment  of  so  many  can  only 
be  accounted  for  by  admitting  the  existence  of  the 
excellencies  of  heart  and  mind  which  they  ascribe  to 
him.  Wasianski  says,  ''  He  was  very  humane,  was 
free  from  all  desire  to  domineer,  was  no  one's  enemy, 
treated  his  colleagues  with  confidence  and  friendship, 
aided  young  scholars  with  counsel  and  otherwise,  and 
introduced  young  authors  to  the  public  by  writing 
prefaces  for  their  books."  Jachmann's  brother  was 
desirous  of  studying  in  Edinburgh  and  travelling 
afterwards.  Kant  became  interested  in  the  project, 
and  set  aside  five  hundred  thalers  on  which  the  young 
man  was  at  liberty  to  draw  at  any  time ;  and  when  he 
found  no  occasion  to  use  the  money  the  philosopher 
was  disappointed.  Having  recommended  a  young 
man  to  a  chaplaincy,  he  discussed  the  trial  sermon 
with  him  several  days  before  it  was  preached,  so  as  to 
make  sure  that  it  would  prove  acceptable ;  and  when 
it  was  delivered  he  sent  a  friend  to  the  church  to  hear 


it,  and  immediately  report  the  impression  it  made. 
For  the  same  person  he  afterwards  secured  a  position 
as  teacher,  and  used  his  personal  influence  to  secure 
pupils  for  the  school.  Many  who  were  in  perplexity 
or  need  were  recipients  of  his  kindness,  and  some  of 
the  letters  from  his  students  are  filled  with  expressions 
of  gratitude  for  the  many  benefits  received  from  him. 

Although  he  did  not  like  to  visit  sick  friends,  he 
kept  himself  informed  respecting  their  condition. 
When  his  friend  Motherby  was  dangerously  ill,  Jach- 
mann  was  required  to  report  his  condition,  and  the 
opinions  of  his  physicians,  twice  a  day.  After  the 
decease  of  acquaintances,  he  preferred  not  to  converse 
about  them ;  but  when  they  were  mentioned,  he  would 
say,  "  Let  the  d6ad  rest  with  the  dead,"  or,  *'  It  is  all 
over." 

During  the  life  of  the  countess,  Kant's  intimacy 
with  the  Kayserling  family  continued.  Hamann  says 
of  this  family,  "  This  house  is  the  crown  of  our 
nobility,  and  is  distinguished  above  all  others  by  its 
hospitality,  benevolence,  and  taste."  Professor  Kraus, 
who  had  also  occupied  the  position  of  family  tutor  in 
this  house,  says  of  the  table-talk  of  the  countess, 
"  She  speaks  incessantly  to  me  alone ;  and  of  what,  do 
you  think?  Of  the  theories  of  light  by  Euler  and 
Newton ;  of  the  Edda ;  of  superstition  and  unbelief, 
which  of  the  two  is  worse ;  of  new  discoveries  and  new 

books She  takes  all  the  French  journals  and 

does  nothing  but  read."  This  countess,  who  of  all 
women,  his  mother  alone  excepted,  seems  to  have 
exerted  the  greatest  influence  on  Kant,  gathered  around 
her  the  scholars,  literary  men,  and  nobility  of  Konigs- 
berg.     Kant,  Hamann,  Kraus,  Hippel,  and  other  men 

0  2 


ass 


196 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


of  letters,  besides  the  highest  civil  and  military  officers, 
were   frequent  guests  in  the  Kayserling  palace.     In 
this  illustrious  company  she  took    special  delight  in 
honouring  Kant,  whose  talents    and  scholarship  had 
received  so  much  of  their  poHsh  under  her  refining 
influence.     In  refinement  and  social   culture  he  was 
adapted  to  the  most  elegant  society,  while  in  intellect 
and  in  conversational  powers  he  surpassed  all  others 
who   frequented  this    house.     Here   the   popular  and 
brilliant  Kant  shone  to  the  best  advantage.     Unless 
strangers  were  present,  he  always  occupied  the  seat  of 
honour  next   to   the  countess.     His  position   in  this 
circle  gives  an  idea  of  his  social  standing  in  the  city, 
he  being  the  most  popular  as  well  as  the  most  enter- 
taining and  the  most  inspiring  member  of  the  most 
cultivated  society. 

His  more  popular  lectures  arrested  the  attention  of 
the  officers  of  the  city  soon  after  he  became  a  teacher, 
and  the  governors  and  military  commanders  admired 
his  scholarship  and  sought  his  company.  In  1764 
Hamann  speaks  of  Kant's  relation  to  General  Meyer, 
who  was  commander  of  a  regiment  of  dragoons  and 
also  governor  of  the  province.  ''  He  is  now  lecturing 
on  mathematics  and  physical  geography,  to  General 
Meyer  and  his  officers,  which  brings  him  much  honour 
and  is  of  great  advantage.  He  dines  with  the  General 
almost  daily,  and  is  brought  to  his  lectures  in  a  car- 
riage. Swept  along  by  a  whirlpool  of  social  distractions, 
he  has  a  number  of  projects  in  his  head,  such  as  a 
system  of  morality,  an  essay  on  a  new  metaphysic,  an 
extract  from  his  geography,  and  a  number  of  minor 
schemes,  from  which  I  also  expect  to  reap  some 
benefit.     Whether  the  least  of  these  will  be  accom- 


GENERAL  MEYER. 


197 


plished,  I  still  doubt."  Hamann  probably  thought 
that  society  would  interfere  with  his  authorship.  This 
union  of  social  distractions  and  literary  projects  is 
characteristic  of  a  large  part  of  his  Hfe. 

General  Meyer  was  a  man  of  unusual  culture,  and, 
like  Kant,  was  a  bachelor.     He  was  fond  of  giving 
dinner   parties,    to     which    officers    and    the    leading 
scholars  of  the  city  were  invited.     His  partiality  for 
Kant   was    very   marked.     The    General  laid    special 
emphasis  on  dignity  of  deportment;  and  if  anything 
unbecoming  or  unskilful  was  done  by  the  officers  at  his 
table,  he   was    not   backward   in  expressing  his   dis- 
approval.    "Accordingly,    one    day   they   could    not 
suppress  their  fear  when  Kant,  who  sat  opposite  the 
General,  spilt  some  red  wine  on  the  expensive  table- 
cloth.    The  General,  in  order  to  relieve  the  embar- 
rassment,  intentionally  upset  his  own  glass  ;  and  as 
they  were  conversing  about  the  Dardanelles,  he  traced 
the  course  of  the  strait  in  the  wine  with  his  fingers. 
One    aim  was  to  show  the   officers   that  the  scholar 
stood  much  higher  in  his  estimation  than  they  did."(»') 
His  most  intimate  friend  was  won  in  a  peculiar  way, 
and  their  first  encounter  promised  anything  else  rather 
than  friendship.     Walking  in  a  garden  one  day,  Kant 
came  upon  a  company  in  which  he  found  an  acquain- 
tance with  whom  he  entered  into  a  conversation,  in 
the   course  of  which  he  spoke  rather  bitterly  of  the 
policy   pursued    by    England.     Suddenly    one    of  the 
company    sprang    up    angrily,    and    placing    himself 
before  Kant,  he  avowed  that  he  was  an  Englishman, 
and  declared  that  he  as  well  as  his  whole  nation  had 
been  insulted  by  the  remarks  made  :  and  in  his  ano-cr 
he  demanded  satisfaction  by  means  of  a  duel.     Kant, 


198 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


not  in  the  least  disconcerted,  continued  the  discussion 
of  the  subject  which  had  given  the  offence,  and  with 
such  eloquence  gave  the  principles  according  to  which 
events  like  that  should  be  judged,  that  the  Englishman, 
quite  astonished,  gave  him  his  hand,  cordially  acknow- 
ledo-ed  the  justice  of  Kant's  exalted  ideas,  asked  pardon 
for  his  anger,  accompanied  him  to  his  house,  and  in- 
vited him  to  pay  him  a  visit.  This  was  the  philo- 
sopher's introduction  to  Green,  whose  pedantic 
punctuality  has  already  been  mentioned.  (^^) 

Green  had   a  good  mind,   was  well  informed,  and 
read  much  ;  he  was  peculiar  and  even  whimsical,  but 
at  the  same  time  upright  and  noble.     The  esteem  in 
which  Kant  held  this  merchant's  intellectual  capacities 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  as  he  informed  Jachmann, 
he  did  not  write  a  sentence  in  the ''  Kritik"  which  he  had 
not  first  submitted  to  Green.    For  years  the  philosopher 
and  the  merchant  were  daily  companions,  regularly 
spending  several  hours  together.     Jachmann  gives  an 
amusing  scene  in  connexion  with  their  daily  meeting, 
in  which  we  find  an  exception  to  Kant's  rule  not  to 
sleep    in    the    day-time,    though    it  may    be   that   it 
occurred  before  he  had  adopted  that  rule.     He  went 
every  afternoon  to  the  house  of  his  friend,  who  at  that 
time  could  not  go  out  because  he  suffered  from  podagra, 
and  would  usually  find  him  asleep  in  his  arm-chair. 
Seating  himself  at  Green's  side,  he  would  give  himself 
to  meditation  and  also  fall  asleep.     Generally  another 
friend,  a  bank-director  named  Ruffmann,  also  came  and 
took  a  nap.     At  an  appointed  time,  Motherby,  Green's 
partner,  entered  the  room  and  awoke  the  trio,  when 
they  engaged  in  conversation  till  seven.     So  punctually 
did  they  separate  at  this  hour,  that  the  writer  says, 


GREEN    AND   MOTHERBY. 


199 


*'  I  have  often  heard  the  inhabitants  of  the  street  say, 
'  It  cannot  be  seven  yet,  for  Kant  has  not  gone  by.' " 
On  Saturday  evenings  these  friends,  joined  by  a  few 
others,  generally  remained  together  and  took  tea. 

Green  died  in  1787,  and  his  death  is  said  to  have 
seriously  affected  Kant's  mode  of  life.  After  this  he 
rarely  went  into  company  in  the  evening,  which  has 
been  attributed  to  the  loss  of  his  friend  ;  he,  however, 
began  about  this  time  to  have  his  own  table  and  guests, 
and  this  fact  more  than  any  other  probably  led  him  to 
decline  invitations. 

Robert  Motherby  was  another  intimate  friend  of  the 
metaphysician,  who  esteemed  him  highly  and  fre- 
quently accepted  his  hospitality.  He  had  come  from 
Hull  to  manage  the  business  of  Green,  who  preferred 
to  devote  his  time  to  reading,  and  in  the  course  of  time 
he  was  made  a  partner  in  the  firm.  The  sons  of  this 
merchant  also  became  warm  friends  of  the  philosopher. 
In  one  of  his  letters,  Kant  speaks  of  Dr.  "Wm.  Motherby 
as  his  special  friend,  just  as  his  father  had  been,  and 
adds,  "Uprightness  is  his  native  character  as  well 
as  that  of  his  father."  It  was  this  son  who,  after 
Kant's  death,  proposed  that  his  friends  should  meet 
annually  on  his  birthday,  to  keep  fresh  the  memory  of 
the  great  philosopher.  In  associating  with  these 
Englishmen  and  with  their  countrymen,  namely,  the 
merchants  and  seamen  whom  he  met  at  their  houses, 
Kant  had  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  his  knowledge  of 
English  literature  and  politics ;  and  we  know  that  he 
was  not  slow  in  improving  such  opportunities. 

Among  the  literary  men  in  Konigsberg  with  whom 
Kant  associated,  John  George  Hamann  was  by  far  the 
most  eminent.     Our  interest  in  him  is  the  greater  be- 


. 


200 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


THE  MAGICIAN    QF    THE    NORTH. 


.    201 


cause  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  many  important  hints 
respecting  the  philosopher  and  his  labours.     The  rank 
assigned  to  him  in  literature  is  indicated  by  an  article 
which    appeared  in   1853,    in  a  journal  published   in 
Konigsberg,  where  both  he  and  Kant  were  born  and 
where  they  lived  and  died.  (^^)     It  speaks  of  Hamann's 
fame    as   promising  to  surpass   that   of  the    Critical 
Philosopher,    although  during    their  lives    Kant    was 
famous  and  the  ''Magician  of  the  North,"  as  Hamann 
was   called,    was    obscure    and    neglected.     "  Verily, 
while  Kant's  activity  almost  lies  closed  behind  us,  the 
present  judges  otherwise  respecting  the  Magician  of 
the  North,  who  is  now  honoured  as  one  of  the  greatest 
and  deepest  thinkers  of  last  century."     But  since  this 
was  written,  the  revival  of  interest  in  Kant  has  again 
exalted  him,   and  has  opened   a   new  and   important 
activity  for  his  philosophy,   and  promises  for  it  great 
things  in  the  future ;  and  there  can  be  no  question  that 
in  intellectual  greatness,  especially  in  speculation,  he 
was  far  superior  to  his  literary  friend.     Hamann  is, 
however,  now  receiving  some  of  the  merited  recognition 
which  his  own  age  refused  him,  and  his  words  have  a 
prophetic  ring  :    "  One  easily   overcomes  the   double 
grief  of  being  misunderstood  and  therefore  abused  by 
his  own  age,  by  cherishing  confidence  in  the  abilities  of 
a  better  coming  generation." 

Hamann  was  six  years  Kant's  junior,  and  died  six- 
teen years  earlier  than  the  philosopher.  Having  com- 
pleted his  studies  in  his  native  city,  he  became  a  family 
tutor,  and  afterwards  went  to  London  on  business  for  a 
firm  in  Riga,  but  was  wholly  unsuccessful.  Becoming 
dissipated,  he  spent  money  entrusted  to  him  by  the 
firm,  and  became  indebted  to  them  to  the  amount  of 


i 
i 


300/.  sterling.  When  on  the  verge  of  despair,  he 
read  the  Bible  and  professed  to  have  been  converted 
''by  means  of  a  descent  to  the  hell  of  a  knowledge 
of  self."  He  wrote  an  autobiographic  sketch  of  his 
experience  in  London,  giving  a  mitiute  account  of 
his  career  in  that  city,  and  presented  it  to  one  of  his 
employers  in  Riga,  at  the  same  time  asking  for  the 
hand  of  his  sister  in  marriage.  The  man  was  shocked 
by  the  perusal  of  this  confession,  and  as  its  author 
still  continued  the  course  of  idleness  into  which 
he  had  fallen,  his  request  was  refused.  The  sketch 
created  such  aversion  to  him  that  the  firm  felt  in- 
clined to  have  him  imprisoned  for  having  wasted  their 
money. 

After  visiting  Riga,  Hamann  went  to  Konigsberg, 
and  Mr.  Berens,  a  member  of  the  firm,  also  went  to 
that  city.  This  gentleman  became  intimate  with  Kant, 
and  the  two  tried  to  rescue  Hamann  from  the  gloom 
which  had  settled  upon  him,  and  to  induce  him  to  work 
and  form  regular  habits  of  industry.  Not  only  was  he 
melancholy  and  shiftless,  idle  and  restless,  but  he  also 
insisted  on  continuing  in  his  idleness  and  on  letting  his 
mind- brood  or  revel  as  it  pleased.  Their  efforts  to  in- 
duce him  to  change  his  mode  of  life  incensed  him,  and 
to  lead  them  to  desist  he  wrote  his  "  Socratic  Memora- 
bilia," in  which  Kant  and  Berens  are  represented  as 
sustaining  to  him  the  relation  of  Alcibiades  to 
Socrates.  In  this  little  book  he  claims  that  he  must 
go  his  own  way,  guided  by  "  the  word  in  his  heart," 
which  is  the  light  of  the  Gospel.  Hamann  warmly 
defends  himself,  and  it  is  evident  that,  on  account  of 
his  religion,  he  regards  himself  as  superior  to  Kant, 
whom  he  does  not  think  devout  enough.    When  this 


i. 


HAMANN  S  INTELLECTUAL  CHARACTER. 


203 


202 


THE    LTFE    OE   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


book  appeared,  Kant  was  thirty- five  years  old,  and  had 
been  a  tutor  in  the  university  for  four  years. 

Lindner,  a  mutual  friend  in  Riga,  interposed  to 
restore  harmony.  The  firm  forgave  the  debt ;  and  in 
spite  of  Hamann's  passionate  words  in  his  book,  he  and 
Kant  remained  on  friendly  terms.  In  some  respects 
they  were  antipodes.  The  metaphysician  was  cold, 
logical,  systematic,  and  severely  regular  ;  Hamann  was 
passionate  and  imaginative,  a  creature  of  moods  and 
impulses.  Kant  made  reason  the  rule  of  his  life  and 
the  source  of  his  philosophy;  Hamann  found  the 
source  of  both  in  his  heart.  While  Kant  dreaded 
enthusiasm  in  religion,  and  suspected  in  it  superstition 
and  fanaticism,  Hamann  revelled  in  enthusiasm  ;  and  he 
beheved  in  revelation,  miracles,  and  worship,  difiering 
also  in  these  points  from  the  philosopher.  In  some 
respects  they  complemented  each  other ;  but  the 
repelling  elements  were  too  strong  to  make  them  fully 
sympathetic.  The  difference  in  their  stand-points, 
however,  makes  Hamann  s  views  of  Kant  all  the  more 
interesting. 

In  the  course  of  time  Hamann  secured  employment 
as  a  secretary  in  a  government  office;  but  business 
was  irksome  to  him,  and  literature  largely  absorbed 
his  attention.  Following  the  bent  of  his  own  mind 
while  at  the  university,  he  had  spent  his  time  there 
chiefly  in  studying  the  humanities,  instead  of  pre- 
paring for  the  ministry,  as  his  father  desired,  or  of 
studying  law,  though  inscribed  as  a  juridical  student. 
After  settling  down  in  Konigsberg,  he  devoted  himself 
to  theology,  philosophy,  ancient  literature,  oriental 
languages,  and  desultory  reading.  He  was  a  voracious 
reader,  the  ancient  classics  and  English  authors  being 


A 


I  » 


among  his  favourites.  His  mind  was  receptive  and 
creative,  and  was  easily  aroused  ;  his  imagination  was 
vivid,  his  heart  passionate.  While  not  the  man  to 
treat  a  subject  exhaustively  or  systematically,  he  was 
original  and  had  genius.  Gifted  with  a  keen  pro- 
phetic insight  and  remarkable  intuition,  his  writings 
are  pecuhar,  rich  in  apothegms,  dark  sayings,  and 
riddles.  IJis  style  is  his  own  ;  and  the  sententiousness, 
the  real  profundity,  and  the  peculiar  use  of  figures 
and  symbols,  make  his  books  obscure,  and  there  are 
passages  which  he  himself  did  not  understand  some 
time  after  they  were  written ;  (^")  but  from  the  dark 
clouds  lightning  flashes  give,  as  it  were,  revelations 
of  nature,  the  heart,  and  divine  things.  Uniting  in 
himself  so  much  that  is  poetical,  romantic,  wild,  and 
weird,  he  well  deserved  the  regard  of  Kant,  the  high 
esteem  in  which  Goethe  and  other  literary  men  held 
him,  and  the  name  by  which  he  is  known  in  German 
literature,  "  The  Magician  of  the  North." 

Hamann,  who  frequently  met  Kant,  had  a  profound 
admiration  for  his  intellect,  and  appreciated  the  excel- 
lence of  his  heart;  but  he  was  not  blind  to  his  faults, 
and  never  became  an  advocate  of  his  philosophy. 
Kant  aided  him  in  various  ways,  and  permitted  his 
son  to  hear  his  lectures  without  compensation ;  Hamann 
recognized  his  indebtedness,  and  was  so  anxious  not 
to  offend  his  benefactor  that  he  hesitated  to  criticize 
his  books  as  severely  as  he  thought  they  deserved. 
He  wrote  to  Herder,  "Through  ki-auess  to  my  son, 
Kant  has  put  me  under  obligation  to  him,  so  that  I 
desire,  as  much  as  you,  to  avoid  all  unpleasantness. 
Aside  from  the  old  Adam  in  his  books,  he  is  really 
obliging,  unselfish,  and  at  heart  a  good    and   noble- 


im 


7f 


204 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


1 


minded  man  of  talent  and  of  merit."  They  frequently 
discussed  literary  subjects.  Both  were  more  eager  to 
talk  than  to  listen,  and  as  their  differences  were  very 
marked,  their  disputes  at  times  became  quite  warm ; 
both,  however,  loved  the  truth  and  were  sincere  in 
their  inquiries,  and   each  respected  the  views  of  the 

other. 

Soon  after  the  troubles  with  the  firm  in  Riga,  Kant 
and  Hamann,  who  had  both  been  family  tutors, 
planned  to  write  a  book  for  children,  on  "  Physics." 
Hamann  was,  no  doubt,  better  fitted  for  such-  a  task 
than  Kant,  being  better  able  to  enter  into  sympathy 
with  children.  For  some  reason  the  philosopher 
dropped  the  matter,  and  Hamann,  with  considerable 
passion,  and  in  an  imperious  tone,  wrote  to  him,  to 
reprove  him  for  abandoning  the  project.  He  admits 
his  learning,  and  recognizes  him  as  a  philosopher,  but 
charges  him  with  vanity  and  a  lack  of  candour.  Pro- 
bably hinting  that  if  Kant  aided  in  writing  such  a  book 
as  that  contemplated,  he  would  accomplish  something 
more  useful  than  he  had  yet  done,  he  says,  "  It  is  as 
easy  to  preach  to  scholars  as  it  is  to  cheat  honest  people ; 
nor  is  it  a  dangerous  or  a  responsible  work,  because 
most  of  them  are  already  so  perverted  that  a  venture- 
some author  cannot  any  more  confuse  their  mode  of 
thinking.  Even  the  blind  heathen  had  regard  for 
children ;  and  a  baptized  philosopher  ought  to  know 
that,  in  order  to  write  for  children,  more  is  required 
than  the  wit  of  Fontenelle  and  a  coquettish  style.  One 
would  injure  children  by  that  which  petrifies  beautiful 
spirits  and  inspires  beautiful  marble."  Evidently  re- 
garding the  philosopher  as  too  far  removed  from  the 
simple  nature  of  children   to  adapt  himself  to  their 


^ 


i 


HAMANn's   ESTIMATE    OF   HIM. 


205 


needs,  he  warns  him  that  he  who  would  write  for  them 
must  have  a  knowledge  of  children,  such  as  neither 
the  gallant  nor  the  academic  world  can  give.     This 
was  said  when  Kant  was  as  brilliant  in  society  as  in 
the  lecture-room.     Hamann's   severity  is  seen  in  the 
following :  «  The  spirit  of  our  book  must  be  moral ; 
but  if  we  ourselves  are  not  moral,  how  can  we  impart 
a   moral  spirit  to  our  books,  and  communicate  it  to 
our  readers  ?     We  should  obtrude  ourselves  as  blind 
leaders  of  the  blind ;  obtrude  ourselves,  I  say,  with- 
out a  calling   and  without   necessity."     This  is  pro- 
bably merely  a  hint  that  Kant  was  not  frank  towards 
Hamann  in  this  matter.     Kant  did  not  reply  to  these 
insinuations   and  appeals,  and  the  project  of  writing 
the  book,  of  which  the  philosopher  seemed  to  think 
little,   while  Hamann  regarded  it  as  very    important, 
was  dropped. 

Their  temperaments    and  stand-points   made    such 
conflicts     unavoidable.      The    impulsive,    unreserved 
Magician   could  not   put  himself  in  the  place  of  the 
self-possessed  Critical   Philosopher.     If  Hamann  was 
one-sided,  was  Kant  less  so?     Were  not  the  qualities 
which  had  been  excessively  developed  by  the  one,  the 
very  things  which  the  other  had  neglected  ?     In  later 
years  Hamann  dealt  less  passionately  with  his  eminent 
friend,  and  frequently  speaks  of  him  with  great  praise. 
He,  indeed,  thought  that  the  remarkable  fame  of  the 
thinker  had  made  him  somewhat  vain,  but  for  this  he 
blamed  him  less  than  the  public.     Once  he  exclaimed, 
"  How  long  was  this  great  man  obliged  to  be  a  tutor 
in  the  university  !     How  miserable  was  his  condition 
as  a  student !     But  with  what  modesty  he  afterwards 
enjoyed  his  great  triumphs  !  "     His  conflicting  views 


''^'Spaee* 


206 


THE    LIFK    OF    IMMANUB:L   KANT. 


HIPPEL. 


207 


i 


i: 


'- 1 


V 


of  Kant  must  be  ascribed  largely  to  the  changes  in  his 
own  variable  moods. 

Another  of  the  more  noted  of  Kant's  acquaintances 
in  Konigsberg  was  T.  G.  von  Hippel,  an  author  of 
some  repute,  who  by  means  of  his  indomitable  energy 
had  worked  his  way  from  obscurity  and  poverty  to 
position  and  wealth.  Like  other  associates  of  the 
philosopher,  he  was  capricious;  a  strange  man,  in 
whose  character  apparently  contradictory  elements 
were  constantly  cropping  out.  Being  unsettled  in  his 
plans  after  finishing  his  studies  at  Konigsberg,  his  love 
for  a  young  lady  of  rank  led  him  to  study  law  with 
great  zeal  and  sacrifice,  in  the  hope  that  he  might  gain 
a  position  which  would  enable  him  to  make  her  his 
wife ;  but  after  completing  this  study  he  abandoned  all 
thought  of  marriage,  in  order  to  devote  himself  com- 
pletely to  intellectual  and  practical  pursuits.  He 
wrote  a  book  on  "Marriage,"  and  a  play  on*' The 
Man  regulated  by  the  Watch ;"  but  "  the  greatest 
eulogist  of  marriage  remained  unmarried,  and  the 
author  of '  The  Man  regulated  by  the  Watch  '  never 
possessed  a  watch.  He  loved  money,  but  rarely  had 
any ;  he  collected  the  emblems  of  death,  and  placed 
them  about  him,  and  often  spoke  and  wrote  about 
dying,  yet  he  was  afraid  of  death ;  he  found  that  life 
insipid  which  he  was  loth  to  leave."  (^') 

Kant,  who  was  attracted  by  that  which  was  peculiar 
and  paradoxical,  took  pleasure  in  Hippel's  company, 
at  whose  house  he  was  accustomed  to  meet  men  like 
Hamann,  Borowski,  Scheffner,  Jensch,  a  lawyer, 
Lawson,  a  poet,  and  Fischer,  who  was  a  preacher. 
Jensch  was  also  a  bachelor,  as  well  as  Hippel  and 
Kant.     Hippel' s  house  was,  in  fact,  a  favourite  rendez- 


vous for  the  literary  men  of  the  city.  He  himself  was 
greatly  influenced  by  English  authors,  Fielding  and 
Sterne  being  his  literary  models. 

Hippel  published  a  book  on  "  Marriage,"  in  1774, 
and  one  on  ''The  Course  of  Life,"  in  1778,  both  of 
which  appeared  anonymously.  They  contained  so 
many  thoughts  which  were  afterwards  found  in  Kant's 
metaphysical  works,  that  it  was  suspected  that  he  was 
either  their  author,  or  had  aided  in  their  preparation. 
After  Hippel's  death  in  1796,  Kant,  being  requested 
to  indicate  his  relation  to  these  books,  stated  that  he 
took  no  part  in  preparing  them  ;  and  of  the  thoughts 
which  were  so  similar  to  his  own  he  gives  this  explana- 
tion :  "  They  gradually  passed,  fragmentarily,  into  the 
manuscripts  of  my  hearers;  but  I  could  not  bring 
these  thoughts  into  a  system  until  the  period  between 
the  years  1770  and  1780.  The  notes  of  my  pupils  on 
my  lectures  on  logic,  morality,  natural  law,  &c.,  but 
especially  those  on  anthropology,  were  (as  is  usually 
the  case  when  the  teacher  does  not  read)  very  imper- 
fect. These  notes  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  deceased, 
and  were  sought  by  him  because,  besides  the  dry 
scientific  elements,  they  also  contained  much  that  is 
popular,  and  which  the  enlightened  man  could  use  in 
his  writings."  There  is,  however,  still  another  way  of 
accounting  for  at  least  some  of  Kant's  thoughts  in 
these  books.  Hippel  is  said  to  have  caught  much  of 
his  inspiration,  and  to  have  taken  many  of  his  thoughts, 
from  the  conversation  of  the  literary  men  who  were 
frequently  his  guests,  and  is  reported  to  have  made 
arrangements  to  be  called  away  from  the  table  at  stated 
times,  in  order  that  in  a  neighbouring  room  he  might 
jot  down  the  most  important  thoughts  he  had  heard. 


f! 


II 


X 


208 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANTJEL    KANT. 


Of  the  literary  men  who  frequented  Hippel's  house, 
J.  G.  Scheffner,  councillor  of  war,  was  another  strange 
character.     He  was  twelve  years  younger  than  Kant, 
and  was  one  of  the  last  survivors  of  his  friends,  dying 
August  20,  1820.     Scheffner  associated  with  all  the 
literary  characters  of  Konigsberg,  composed  military 
poems,  made  translations  from  foreign  languages,  and 
was   the  author  of  books,  essays,  and  reviews ;  and 
through  these  various  labours,  and  by  means  of  his 
counsel,  deeds,  and  social  power,  he  exerted  a  great 
influence,  and  has  been  called  "  The  Franklin  on  the 
shore  of  the   Baltic."      That  like  other  friends  of  the 
great  philosopher,  he,  too,  was  eccentric,  is  seen  in  his 
arrangements  for  his  funeral.     Some  time  before  his 
death  he  had  a  plain  coflSn  made  for  himself,  chose 
the  place  where  his  remains  were  to  be  deposited,  and 
arranged  all  the  details  of  his  burial.     He  even  com- 
posed the  hymns  to  be  sung  on  that  occasion,  and 
named  certain  persons  who  were  to  be  invited  to  his 
house  a  few  days  after  his  funeral,  where  they  were  to 
partake  of  a  dinner  and  be  of  good  cheer.     They  came, 
but  felt  their  loss  too  keenly  to  enjoy  the  occasion. 

Although  Scheffner  was  not  one  of  Kant's  more 
intimate  guests,  he  frequently  entertained  the  philo- 
sopher, and  he  also  visited  him  when  too  feeble  to 
leave  the  house.  In  his  Autobiography  he  relates  an 
incident  which  illustrates  the  desire  of  the  philosopher 
always  to  help  himself  and  to  be  independent  of  others. 
"  During  a  visit,  made  about  a  year  before  his  death, 
he  could  not  find  the  word  he  wished  to  use  in  the 
conversation.  When  I  wanted  to  help  him,  he  seized 
my  hands,  saying,  'No,  no,  friend!  do  not  help  me; 
my  head  must  itself  find   it.'      He   then   went   over 


3 


BOROWSKI. 


209 


different  expressions  until  he  found  the  right  one, 
which  he  accompanied  with  a  well-satisfied  "  Do  you 
see,  friend?"  His  attachment  to  the  philosopher 
was  proved  some  time  after  Kant's  death  by  his  efforts 
to  make  the  surroundings  of  his  grave  worthy  of  the 
memory  of  his  eminent  friend. 

L.  E.  Borowski  was  not  only  a  friend  of  Kant,  but 
also  his  biographer.     Having  entered  the  University 
of  Konigsberg  in  1755,  the  year  in  which  Kant  became 
a  teacher,  he  heard  the  first  lectures  of  the  philosopher. 
He  spent  his  whole  hfe  in   Konigsberg,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  the  EvangeKcal  Church,  the  only  functionary 
of  that  rank  in  Prussia,  and  died  in  1831.     His  ac- 
quaintance with  Kant  for  fifty  years,  and  his  residence 
in  the  same  city,  gave  him  unusual  facilities  for  ob- 
taining a  knowledge  of  the  life  and  character  of  his 
teacher.     When  requested  to  deliver  an  address  before 
the  German  Society  of  Konigsberg  in  1792,  he  chose 
"  Kant "  as  his  subject,  and  sent  the  manuscript  of 
his  speech  to  the  philosopher,  stating  his  purpose,  and 
requesting  him  to  make  erasures,  remarks,  or  additions, 
as  he  thought  best.     Kant  complied  with  his  request, 
but  at  the  same  time  expressed  his  desire  that  the 
address  should  not  be  delivered,  much  less  published, 
during  his  life,  though  he  willingly  consented  to  let  the 
manuscript  become  the  basis  of  a  biography  to   be 
published  after   his  death.     Borowski  respected  this 
desire,  and  after  Kant's  death  he  published  the  manu- 
script, with  the  philosopher's  emendations,  and  added 
other  biographical  material  so  as  to  bring  the  history 
of  the  great  man  down  to  the  close  of  his  life.     Of  the 
various  biographies  of  Kant,  by  friends  and  cotem- 
poraries,  that  of  Borowski  is  the  most  valuable,  and 

p 


'I 


4' 


l\ 


St 

II 


210 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANGEL    KANT. 


peculiar  significance  is,  o£  course,  to  be  attached  to 
that  part  which  received  Kant's  review  and  sanction. 

R.  B.  Jachmann  entered  the  University  of  Konigs- 
berg,  his  native  city,  in  1784,  became  Kant's  amanu- 
ensis, and  remained  in  intimate  relation  with  him  for 
ten  years.  The  philosopher,  four  years  before  his 
death,  requested  him  to  write  his  biography,  and  pro- 
mised to  lend  his  aid.  Jachmann  prepared  a  sketch  of 
his  life  and,  according  to  agreement,  sent  it  to  him 
for  review;  but  the  aged  savant  was  already  too 
weak  to  revise  it.  In  1804  he  published  an  account 
of  Kant's  life  and  character,  in  eighteen  letters ;  and 
although  a  critical  spirit  is  lacking  in  them,  they  con- 
tain much  valuable  material.  The  author's  enthusiasm 
for  his  teacher  led  him  to  idealize  his  subject,  and 
repeatedly  one  finds  extravagance  and  hero-worship 
instead  of  reliable  biography. 

Among  the  numerous  pupils  of  Kant  during  his 
active  connexion  of  more  than  forty  years  with  the 
university,  four  or  five  are  mentioned  for  whom  he  had 
a  special  regard.  One  of  these  was  0.  J.  Kraus,  with 
whom  he  became  more  intimately  associated  than  with 
the  rest.  He  entered  the  university  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  in  1770,  the  year  in  which  Kant  became  a 
professor.  Kraus  heard  all  his  lectures  eagerly,  and, 
like  so  many  other  bright  and  talented  youths,  became 
an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  his  favourite  teacher.  Kant's 
instruction  powerfully  stimulated  his  mind,  and  excited 
doubts  and  inquiries  about  which  he  was  anxious  to  con- 
sult his  instructor ;  but  the  distance  between  professor 
and  student  was  at  that  time  greater  than  at  present, 
friendly  communications  between  them  were  more 
unusual,  and  Kraus  was  so  modest  that  he  did  not 


i 


) 


-1 


KRAUS. 


211 


venture  to  visit  him  for  consultation.  He,  however, 
became  a  member  of  a  society  formed  by  Kant  for  the 
discussion  of  subjects  connected  with  his  lectures, 
and  in  one  of  the  meetings  he  presented  such  deep 
thoughts  that  the  philosopher,  surprised  at  his  unusual 
intellect,  addressed  him  at  the  close  in  order  to  make 
his  acquaintance.  (^^)  Kant  after  this  took  a  deep 
interest  in  the  young  man,  and  aided  him  also  in  other 
respects  than  in  his  intellectual  development.  Kraus 
became  a  tutor  in  the  house  of  Count  Kajserling,  no 
doubt  through  Kant's  great  influence  in  that  family. 
In  1780,  though  only  twenty-seven  years  old,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  practical  philosophy  in  the 
university,  and  from  this  time  he  was  a  colleague  of 
Kant,  and  was  frequently  in  his  company. 

While  in  some  respects  the  teacher  and  pupil  were 
remarkably  alike,  they  were  as  unlike  in  others.  Kraus, 
like  his  teacher,  was  very  conscientious  in  meeting 
his  engagements,  and  was  prompt  and  punctual. 
Respecting  dress  their  contrast  was  marked,  Kraus 
being  as  negligent  as  Kant  was  careful.  Through  his 
teacher's  influence  he  was  induced  to  adopt  the  Kantian 
diet,  and  from  dinner  to  dinner  he  took  nothing 
but  water.  Kant,  who  was  very  economical  and  provi- 
dent, advised  Kraus  to  lay  aside  two  hundred  thalers 
annually,  but  he  was  careless  respecting  money  as  well 
as  his  apparel.  As  a  rule,  Kant  was  strict  in  demand- 
ing compensation  for  his  lectures,  though  he  permitted 
some  poor  students  to  hear  them  gratis.  .  He  said 
that  by  neglecting  to  pay,  the  students  '' become  spend- 
thrifty  and  unscrupulous ;  if  they  neglect  and  cheat 
their  teacher,  they  will  also  learn  to  cheat  other  persons. 
The  hearer  of  lectures  who  is  obliged  to  pay  for  them, 

p  2 


212 


TOE    LIFE   OP   TMMANtTEL   KANT. 


ia  in  this  way  made  more  conscientious,  and  is  always 
impelled  to  be  industrious  ;  but  he  who,  through  care- 
less  indulgence,  interferes  with  the  success  of  the 
private  lectures,  brings  the  university  itself  into  a 
miserable  condition,  for  no  one  in  the  world  is  willing 
to  sacrifice  his  powers  for  nothing."  Kraus,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  careless  about  the  pay  of  students. 
Once  he  gave  private  instruction  in  mathematics  to 
two  young  men,  for  which  each  was  to  pay  him  forty 
thalers.  When  the  course  was  finished,  he  said  to  one 
of  them,  who  is  called  a  thorough  Kantian  and  a  con- 
ceited echo  of  the  words  of  the  metaphysician,  "I 
advise  you,  Mr.  L.,  to  abandon  mathematics  altogether, 
since  you  have  no  mind  for  it ;  from  you  I  shall  accept 
no  pay."  From  the  other,  who  had  learned  something, 
he  accepted  the  money.  On  his  own  income,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  other  professors,  a  suggestive  remark 
is  made  by  him:  "Whoever  devotes  himself  to  the 
University  of  Konigsberg  takes  the  vow  of  poverty." 

Professor  Kraus  was  a  laborious  and  successful 
scholar,  and  said  that  his  ardour  in  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics helped  him  to  resist  temptations.  Like  his 
teacher,  he  never  married.  Both  were  brilliant  and 
spirited  conversationists ;  but  while  Kraus  laughed 
heartily,  Kant  scarcely  ever  laughed.  "  Even  when 
by  telling  funny  anecdotes  he  made  all  laugh  who  heard 
him,  he  remained  serious."  At  the  university  they 
were  the  opposite  poles,  the  one  developing  his  strength 
in  speculative,  the  other  in  practical  philosophy.  In 
religion  their  differences  were  very  marked.  Instead 
of  ridiculing  worship,  Kraus  declared  that  his  religion 
consisted  in  two  things,  namely  in  worship  and  in 
doing  good.     A  friend  said  of  him,    "  His  heart  was 


KRAUS. 


213 


full  of  piety,  without  any  admixture  of  fanaticism.  In 
his  last  years  he  probably  stood  on  a  higher  stand- 
point than  Kant  for  judging  of  the  true  nature  of 
religion."  There  was  in  his  case  a  beautiful  blending 
of  profound  thought  and  extensive  scholarship  with  a 
devotional  spirit.  Professor  Kraus  did  not  adopt  the 
speculations  of  his  teacher,  and  he  vigorously  opposed 
the  mania  which  possessed  many  of  the  professed 
disciples  of  the  Critical  Philosophy.  Quite  a  number 
on  whom  but  a  few  rays  of  the  system  had  fallen, 
imagined  themselves  to  be  wholly  illuminated  and 
enveloped  by  its  light,  and  looked  on  other  knowledge 
as  contemptible  in  comparison  with  their  a  priori 
wisdom.  But  in  spite  of  the  folly  of  professed  Kantians 
and  the  difference  in  the  stand-points  of  the  specula- 
tive and  practical  philosopher,  Professor  Kraus  was 
attached  to  Kant  himself.  Not  only  was  he,  for  awhile, 
the  daily  dinner-guest  of  the  great  metaphysician,  but 
they  also  frequently  met  each  other  in  society.  They 
usually  sat  near  each  other,  were  about  the  same 
size  and  equally  lean,  and  their  brilliant  conversa- 
tion excited  general  admiration.  Professor  Kraus  re- 
peatedly gave  up  his  journeys  during  vacation  for  the 
sake  of  remaining  with  Kant.  A  nobleman  asking  him 
to  spend  a  vacation  with  him  at  his  country-seat,  he 
declined  on  the  ground  that  if  he  accepted  the  in- 
vitation Kant  would  be  left  without  a  guest.  At 
another  time  he  wrote  to  the  same  gentleman,  "  I  do 
not  know  how  I  can  leave  my  father,  Kant;"  and  at 
another,  "  I  must  spend  this  vacation  with  my  old 
teacher,  Kant." 

For    some    unknown   reason,   however,    Kraus.  at 
length   resolved  no  longer   to  be  Kant's  guest;  and 


214 


THE    LIFE   OP   TMMANUEL    KANT. 


KRAUS. 


215 


one  day  when  Lampe  came  as  usual  to  invite  him, 
he  requested  not  to  be  invited  any  more,  but  assigned 
no  reason.  He  had,  indeed,  often  complained  that 
the  long  time  spent  at  the  table  was  not  agreeable  to 
him ;  there  must,  however,  have  been  other  reasons 
which  he  was  unwilling  to  communicate.  Their  philo- 
sophical differences  may  have  contributed  to  the 
estrangement,  especially  since  both  were  very  positive 
in  their  views,  and  neither  could  well  bear  contradic- 
tion, a  spirit  which  increased  with  age.  Kant  was 
deeply  grieved  by  the  refusal  of  Kraus  to  dine  with 
him;  he  related  the  fact  to  his  guests  with  some 
feeling,  and  discussed  with  them  the  probable  grounds 
of  the  refusal,  but  could  come  to  no  definite  conclusion. 
His  feelings  towards  Kraus  did  not  change  on  account 
of  this  withdrawal  from  his  table.  '*  He  still  continued 
to  speak  of  the  talents  of  Kraus  with  unusual  esteem, 
and  even  with  enthusiasm  of  his  almost  unparalleled 
learning;  and  just  as  little  did  Kraus  let  it  appear 
publicly  that  their  confidential  friendship  had  cooled  in 
a  marked  degree.  Kraus  still  gave  expression  to  his 
high  appreciation  of  Kant,  but  in  a  manner  less 
pronounced  than  formerly."  Kant  made  more  effort 
than  Kraus  to  restore  the  former  intimate  relation,  and 
in  the  course  of  time  the  latter  also  endeavoured  to 
come  nearer  his  teacher  again  ;  but  he  never  spoke  as 
frankly  of  his  high  esteem  for  his  teacher  as  Kant  did 
of  his  regard  for  him;  they,  however,  treated  each 
other  cordially  in  company.  Kraus  was  his  guest  on 
Kant's  last  birthday,  and  he  continued  to  visit  him  dur- 
ing his  feebleness,  and  entreated  the  customary  guests 
of  the  philosopher  not  to  forsake  him  now  that  he 
could  no  longer  do  anything  to  entertain  them.     The 


news  of  Kant's  death  greatly  affected  him ;  and  on  the 
day  of  the  funeral  Wasianski  introduced  him  to  Kant's 
sister.  Deeply  moved,  he  seized  her  hand  to  kiss  it ; 
she  resisted,  but  tried  to  seize  and  kiss  his  hand,  which 
he  prevented ;  they  then  fell  into  each  other's  arms, 
and  wept  for  the  sake  of  the  departed  friend  and 
brother.  Kraus  survived  Kant  several  years,  and  died 
August  25th,  1807.  After  the  death  of  the  great 
philosopher,  he  spoke  admiringly  and  affectionately  of 
his  teacher,  benefactor,  colleague,  and  friend,  and 
showed  his  devotion  to  Kant's  memory  by  always 
attending  the  celebration  of  his  birthday. 

There  were  many  other  friends  of  the  metaphysician, 
some  of  whom  are,  however,  so  Uttle  known  that 
nothing  of  interest  can  be  said  of  them,  and  there  may 
have  been  others  whose  names  have  not  even  been 
recorded.  In  the  following  pages,  especially  under  the 
head  of  Kant's  Correspondence,  an  opportunity  will  be 
given  to  indicate  the  philosopher's  relation  to  some  of 
his  other  friends. 


■•■■■ 


216 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


SUBJECTS    DISCUSSED   IN    ms   BOOKS. 


217 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

kant's  \uthorship. 

Subjects  of  his  works— Pre-critical  period— Book  on  the  Emotion 
of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime— Prevalent  systems  of 
Philosophy  —  Leibnitz-Wolfian  system— Popular  Philosophy 
—Sentimentality  —  Descartes— Locke— Newton  —  Berkeley- 
Hume— First  Metaphysical  Dissertation— Literary  activity, 
1756-63  — Dreams  of  Ghost-seers  explained  by  Dreams 
of  Metaphysics— Letter  to  Moses  Mendelssohn— Period  of 
silence— Correspondence  with  Lambert— Inaugural  Disserta- 
tion—Sensation and  Understanding— Time  and  Space— Letter 
from  Mendelssohn— Letters  to  Herz— Labour  on  the  *'  Kritik" 
— Changes  in  the  plan  of  the  work. 

An  account  of  Kant's  books,  and  a  full  view  of  his 
metaphysics,  belong  rather  to  the  history  of  philosophy 
than  to  a  biography,  for  which  they  would   require 
entirely  too  much  space  and  too  much  abstract  dis- 
cussion.     Nevertheless  his  authorship  was  so  essential 
a  part  of  his  life  that  a  reference  to  its  most  important 
features    should   not   be   omitted.      Where  a  system 
contains  so  many  works,  and  is  so  rich  in  thought,  as 
Kant's,  it  is  far  more  diiBacult  to  limit  the  discussion  to 
a  few  pages  than  to  yield  to  the  temptation  to  quote  ex- 
tensively from  the  profound  thoughts  which  constitute 
the   Critical  Philosophy.     The  following  sketch  aims 
only  to  throw  some  light  from  the  works  on  the  author, 


I 


F 


#.  ■? 


'and  to  incite  to  the  study  of  the  books  themselves  and 

their  valuable  commentaries. 

In  examining  his  authorship  according  to  subjects, 
we  find  that  Kant  wrote  on  mathematical,  physical, 
metaphysical,  aesthetical,  theological,  moral,  and  mis- 
cellaneous subjects.  (^')     His  works  not  merely  cover 
a  wide  domain  of  thought,  and  include  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  sciences,  but  they  also  aim  to  give  the 
fundamental  principles  of  all  science  and  a  critique  of 
all  thought.     He  never  wrote  on  philology,  his  favourite 
study  in  the  gymnasium.     His  first  five  pubhcations, 
1747-55,  are  mathematical  or  physical.     During  the 
next  fifteen  years,  till  1770,  discussions  on  these  sub- 
jects   still  appear,  but  they  are  short,  and  the  most 
important  works   are   metaphysical,  though   he    also 
published  brief  discussions  on  theology,  morals,  and 
aesthetics .     Between   the    Inaugural   Dissertation,  in 
1770,   and   the   "Kritik,"  which   appeared   in  1781, 
we  have  only  a  few  short  and  unimportant   articles 
from  his  pen.     With  the  publication  of  the  "  Kritik  " 
a  new  period  in  Kant's  authorship  is  introduced,  that 
work  making  an  epoch  in  his  literary  labours  as  well 
as  in  philosophy ;  nearly  all  his  works  written  after 
1781    belong   to    metaphysics,   theology,   morals,   or 

sesthetics. 

From  what  is  known  of  Kant's  life,  and  by  following 
the  order  in  which  his  books  appeared,  we  can  deter- 
mine the  subjects  which  occupied  his  attention  in 
different  periods.  His  preference  for  the  Latin  classics, 
under  the  influence  of  Heydenreich,  yielded  to  mathe- 
matics, physics,  and  metaphysics,  under  the  influence 
of  Knutzen  and  Teske  in  the  university,  though  meta- 
physics   was    still    kept   in   the   background.      The 


m—  *- 


I 


218 


iU 


THE    JJFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


HIS    MIND    SEEN    IN    HIS    WORKS. 


219 


impulse  which  he  received  in  the  university  was  followed 
by  Kant  while  a  family  tutor  and  also  a  few  years 
afterwards.  Then  he  manifested  a  decided  preference 
for  metaphysics,  to  which  he  devoted  years  of  absorb- 
ing and  intense  application.  This  is  followed  by  a 
more  practical  period,  when  religion  and  morality,  in 
which  everything  culminates,  are  made  specialities. 
These  periods,  of  course,  cannot  be  sharply  defined, 
since  different  subjects  often  engaged  his  attention  at 
the  same  time ;  in  general,  however,  it  may  be  said 
that  his  authorship  had  a  mathematical,  a  physical,  a 
metaphysical,  and  an  ethical  period. 

The  first  twenty  years  of  his  authorship  belong  to 
the  pre-critical    period,    during  which  Kant  occupies 
essentially  the  position  of  Professor  Knutzen,  namely, 
the  stand-point  of  the  dogmatic  school  of  the  Leibnitz- 
Wolfian   philosophy,  yet   strongly  influenced   by  the 
English  natural  philosophers,  especially  Newton,  and 
also  by  Descartes,  Locke,  and  Berkeley.     Owing  to  the 
study  of  Hume,  a  brief  sceptical  period  followed  the 
dogmatic.     About  the  year  1769  he  broke  entirely  with 
the  old  metaphysical  systems,  of  which  he  had  long 
been  suspicious,  and  which  for  years  he  had  severely 
criticized;  and  from  this  time  he  began  the  development 
of  his  own  peculiar  system,  the  Critical  Philosophy, 
which  culminated  in  the  "  Kritik  "  of  1781.     But  even 
before  1769  we  find  suggestive  hints  which  were  fore- 
runners of  the  philosophy  that  is  peculiarly  Kantian. 
While  he  remained  true  to  the  great  principles  of  the 
Critical   Philosophy  to   the   end  of   his   life,('*)   and 
maintained  its  spirit  in  the  works  which  followed,  he 
strove   especially   to  gain  a  firm   basis  for  morality 
and  religion,  and  hence  we  find  that  after  1 781  great 


prominence  is  given  in  his  works  to  the  moral  as  well 
as  the  critical  elements. 

Many  of  his  literary  efibrts  were  intimately  connected 
with  his  labours  in  the  university,  and  some  of  his 
books  which  were  published  late  in  life,  such  as  his 
"  Anthropology,"  ''  Logic,"  "  Physical  Geography,"  and 
^'  Pedagogics,"  consisted  of  his  lectures,  while  others 
contained  largely  the  results  of  his  preparations  for  his 
academic  work.  The  "  Kritik  "  is  an  exception,  being 
the  product  of  study  independent  of  his  lectures, 
neither  did  he  ever  use  its  contents,  as  a  whole,  in  the 
lecture-room,  nor  make  it  the  basis  of  his  instruction, 
as  was  done  by  many  professors  in  different  parts  of 
Germany. 

The  prominent  characteristics  of  Kant's  mind  are 
seen  to  best  advantage  in  his  books,  which  are  an 
embodiment  of  his  spirit  as  well  as  a  depository  of  his 
thoughts.  Taking  all  his  books,  we  are  struck  with 
the  mental  breadth  revealed  by  the  variety  of  the 
subjects,  with  the  extent  of  his  learning,  the  profun- 
dity and  fertility  of  his  mind,  his  power  of  abstrac- 
tion, and  his  freshness  and  originality.  The  ceaseless 
activity  of  his  mind  is  seen  by  the  great  number  of 
his  books,  which  also  reveal  a  constant  mental  growth, 
so  that  various  stages  of  progress  are  distinctly  marked. 
Sometimes  his  works  followed  each  other  in  quick  suc- 
cession, and  the  amount  of  fi:'esh,  deep,  and  original 
thought  in  them  is  astonishing ;  yet  many  of  his  literary 
projects  were  either  interfered  with  or  wholly  prevented 
by  his  academic  labours  and  by  indisposition,  and  old 
age  overtook  him  when  he  was  still  full  of  plans  for 
new  undertakings.  After  a  work  had  been  published, 
he   generally  paid   little   attention   to  it,   and   rarely 


I 


/ 


220 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


mentioned  it,  treating  it  as  something  with  which  he 
was  done,  and  devoting  his  time  and  energies  to  the 
production  of  a  new  book.("'^) 

There  is  only  one  of  his  books  which  can  be  placed 
in  the  department  of  belles-lettres,  namely,  the  small 
volume  of  1764,  on  "  The  Emotion  of  the  Beautiful 
and  the  Sublime."  It  is  neither  profound  nor  remark- 
able for  new  thoughts ;  but  it  gives  us  aspects  of  the 
philosopher  which  are  unusual  in  his  books,  and  more 
than  any  other  of  his  publications  reveals  those  qualities 
which  made  him  so  great  a  favourite  in  society.  The 
book  itself  interests  us  less  than  the  characteristics  of 
the  author  which  are  revealed  in  its  pages.  It  is 
descriptive  rather  than  speculative,  and  psychological 
rather  than  metaphysical ;  in  its  value  for  aesthetics, 
as  well  as  in  its  influence,  it  is  far  inferior  to  the 
"  Critique  of  the  Judgment."  It  abounds  in  antitheses, 
especially  in  those  which  indicate  the  difference  between 
the  beautiful  and  the  sublime,  and  contains  suggestive 
comments  on  authors  and  on  national  characteristics. 

In  the  first  period  of  his  authorship  Kant  was 
regarded  as  a  master  of  good  style ;  and  on  reading 
this  book  we  are  not  surprised  that  the  students 
requested  him  to  deliver  lectures  on  German  style, 
and  that  the  Government  proposed  to  appoint  him 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  poetry.  Many  of  the  sen- 
tences are  short,  yet  weighty  with  compressed  thought ; 
all  is  clear,  much  is  beautiful,  and  free  scope  is  given 
to  the  imagination.  Between  this  and  his  later  meta- 
physical works  there  is  a  striking  contrast,  which  is 
not  wholly  accounted  for  by  the  difference  in  the 
subjects ;  it  seems  that  his  philosophical  speculations 
spoiled  his  style.     The  sentences  in  his  metaphysical 


k\ 


BOOK    ON    THE    BEAUTIFUL   AND   THE    SUBLIME.        221 

works  are  often  long  and  complicated,  with  numerous 
parenthetical  clauses;    the   subject   under   discussion 
is  dropped,  side-issues  are  introduced,  then  the  main 
thought  is  again  resumed  ;  the  regular  progress  in  the 
development  is  hindered  by  breaks  which  make  the 
connexion  difficult,  and  there  are  numerous  repetitions. 
Much  of  the  obscurity  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  difficulty 
of  the  subjects  and  the  unusual  character  of  the  inves- 
tigations;   but  aside  from  these  considerations,   the 
style  is  such  as  to  render  some  of  these  books  exceed- 
ingly difficult  and  certain  parts  almost  unintelligible. 
It  must,   however,  be  remembered  that  the  German 
language  had  not  yet   attained   its   present  stage  of 
perfection,  that  it  was  comparatively  new  in  philosophy, 
and  that  it  needed  development  in  metaphysical  terms, 
though  this  of  course  does  not  explain  the  fact  that 
his  earlier  style  was  better  than  later  in  life.     It  is  a 
pleasure  to  turn  from  his  heavier  works  to  this  one 
which  has  much  that  is  attractive;  though  we  may 
dissent  from  many  of  its  views,  especially,  as  already 
indicated,  those  on  woman.     We  are   delighted  with 
the  life  and  freshness  of  the  thought,  with  the  striking 
contrasts,  with  the  fine  distinctions,  with  the  anecdotes 
and  the  humour.     While  generally  we  see  Kant  as  he 
delved  in  metaphysics,  we  see  him  here  as  he  played  in 

literature. 

A  few  quotations  will  help  us  to  form  a  conception 
of  the  popular  Kant.  Contrasting  the  beautiful  with  the 
sublime,  he  says,  "  The  emotions  excited  by  the  sublime 
strain  the  faculties  more  and  weary  them  sooner  than 
those  aroused  by  the  beautiful.  One  can  read  a  pastoral 
poem  longer  continuously  than  Milton's  '  Paradise  Lost,' 
and  De  la  Bruyere  longer  than  Young.     To  me  it  looks 


222 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


I  li 


n 


like  a  fault  of  the  latter,  as  a  moral  poet,  that  he  con- 
tinues too  uniformly  in  a  sublime  tone,  for  the  strength 
of  the  impression  can  be  renewed  only  by  contrast 
with  softer  passages."  Tragedy  arouses  the  emotion 
of  the  sublime  ;  comedy  that  of  the  beautiful.  ''  The 
sublime  excites  ;  the  beautiful  charms."  "  The  sublime 
must  always  be  great ;  the  beautiful  may,  however,  be 
small."  "  The  night  is  sublime  ;  the  day  is  beautiful." 
Other  contrasts  are  the  following,  though  not  found 
exactly  in  this  order  :  "  The  understanding  is  sublime ; 
wit  is  beautiful.  Great  heroism  is  subhme  ;  cunning 
is  little,  but  beautiful.  Sublime  qualities  inspire 
esteem,  but  beautiful  ones  inspire  love.  Many  a  person 
is  esteemed  too  much  to  be  loved.  The  hero  of  Homer 
is  terribly  sublime,  while  Virgil's  hero  is  noble.  It  is 
beautiful  to  be  communicative,  but  thoughtful  silence  is 
sublime."  I  In  a  striking  sentence  he  condenses  the 
contrast  between  the  beautiful  and  the  useful :  "  What 
a  pity  that  the  lihes  do  not  spin  !  "  Many  passages 
are  pithy,  as  when  he  says,  "  An  insipid  person,  when 
conceited,  is  a  fool."  Among  the  striking  charac- 
teristics which  he  gives  of  the  different  nations,  this 
passage  on  the  difference  between  English  and  French 
wit  occurs  :  "  In  England,  original  wit  produces  heavy 
gold,  which  under  French  hammers  is  beaten  out  into 
thin  sheets  and  spread  over  a  great  surface." 

Having  already  considered  Kant's  earlier  mathe- 
matical and  physical  works,  we  turn  from  this  enter- 
taining book  to  his  metaphysical  writings,  in  which 
our  interest  mainly  centres,  and  of  which  the  great 
"Kritik"  attracts  us  most.  In  grouping  his  books, 
this  one  should  be  made  the  centre,  and  the  others 
should  be  considered  in  their  relation  to  this  work ; 


LEIBI^lTZ — WOLFIAN    PHILOSOPHY. 


223 


especially   is   Kant's   own  development  till  the  pro- 
duction of  the  "  Kritik"  interesting. 

The  philosophy  prevalent  in  Germany  when  Kant 
became  a  teacher  in  the  university  was  the  Leibnitz- 
Wolfian   system.     Leibnitz,  whose  philosophical  views 
were    scattered    through    his    works   without    being 
formed  by  him  into  a  system,  was  a  dogmatist  in  the 
Kantian  sense,  since,  without  preceding  criticism,  he 
held  that  by  means  of  thought  we  can  attain  know- 
ledge beyond  mere  phenomena.    Believing  that  bet w  een 
thought    and   reality   there   exists   a    pre-established 
harmony,  he  of  course  held  that  a  criticism  of  thought 
is  not  necessary  in  order  to  determine  its  relation  to 
existence.     While  in  this  respect  he  differs  so  mate- 
rially from  the  results  of  the  Critical  Philosophy,  we 
find  that  on  an  important  point  Kant's  earlier  works 
agree  with  him.     While  Descartes  and  his  followers 
held  that  motion  is  able  to  account  for  all  material 
changes  and   manifestations,    Leibnitz   aimed   to   in- 
troduce the  organic  element  into  natural  science  by 
means  of  his  monads  which,  as  living  forces,  are  every- 
where at  work  in  nature.     Kant  already  in  his  earher 
works     also    distinguished   between    the    mechanical 
forces  and  the  organic  powers    in   nature,  and   em- 
phasized the  latter  much  more  than  was  usually  done 
by  writers  on  physics  in  his  day. 

About  1730  the  Wolfian  philosophy  began  its 
almost  universal  reign  in  Germany.  Wolf  had  taken 
the  profound  but  scattered  thoughts  of  Leibnitz  and 
worked  them  into  a  system,  a  process  by  means  of 
which  these  thoughts  themselves  were  somewhat 
modified.  The  Leibnitz-Wolfian  system  rested  on 
principles  which  were  taken  for  granted,  and  on  them 


224 


THE    LIFE    OP   IMMANURTj   KANT. 


superstructures  were  reared  by  means  of  mathematical 
demonstrations.  This  method  was  not  merely  applied 
to  science  and  philosophy,  but  also  to  theology,  morals, 
and  the  daily  affairs  of  life.  In  the  pulpit,  as  well 
as  the  university,  this  method  gained  the  ascendancy, 
and  in  social  circles  the  conversations  were  interlarded 
with  logical  formulas.  In  its  efforts  to  reduce  every- 
thing to  demonstration,  it  introduced  a  new  scholastic 
pedantry  into  philosophy,  a  lifeless  mechanism  which 
exalted  the  form  at  the  expense  of  the  substance,  and 
which  imagined  that  its  conceptions  were  synonymous 
with  the  reality  of  things.  Claiming  to  give  apodictio 
certainty,  it  became  the  veriest  dogmatism. 

Wolf  also  aimed  to  give  to  morals  a  basis  indepen- 
dent of  religion,  so  that  those  who  rejected  religion 
would  still  be  bound  by  morality.  Thomasius,  too, 
had  tried  to  vindicate  for  ethics  a  foundation  inde- 
pendent of  religion.  Wolf  declared  that  "  human 
actions  are  in  themselves  good  or  bad,  and  are  not 
made  so  by  the  will  of  God ;  hence,  even  if  it  were 
possible  for  God  not  to  exist,  and  for  the  present  order 
of  things  to  continue  without  Him,  still  the  free  actions 
of  men  would  be  either  good  or  bad,  just  the  same  as 
if  there  were  a  supreme  moral  Lawgiver." 

Imposing  as  Wolf's  mathematical  method  might  at 
first  appear,  its  emptiness  was  soon  discovered.  Its 
triumphs  had  been  the  more  easy  and  the  more  com- 
plete, because  it  found  in  its  way  nothing  but  a  modified 
Aristotelianism  in  the  form  of  an  effete  scholasticism, 
or  else  a  complete  chaos  of  philosophical  opinions. 
Even  though  Wolfs  system  could  not  long  satisfy 
deep  minds,  it  succeeded  in  introducing  a  confident 
tone  and  a  comfortable  ease  in  philosophy.     As  the 


STATE    OF    METAPHYSICS. 


225 


truth  was  imagined  to  lie  on  the  surface,  its  discovery 
was  thought  to  be  easy  ;  there  was  accordingly  a  lack 
of  earnest  wrestUng  with  the  fundamental  principles 
of  knowledge  and  the  deepest  problems  of  life.  A 
popular  philosophy  began  to  prevail  which  was  simply 
the  product  of  ordinary  or  common  sense;  it  was 
shallow  and  too  easily  satisfied,  drew  its  conclusions 
too  readily,  and  gave  a  fatal  facility  to  the  whole  work 
of  philosophizing.  This  spirit  was  encouraged  by  the 
prevailing  tendency  to  popularize  philosophy,  in  order 
to  make  it  a  commodity  of  the  people  instead  of  an 
arcanum  of  the  schools.  The  deep  and  perplexing 
problems  which  occur  to  speculative  minds  in  all  ages, 
which  lie  at  the  basis  of  all  thinking,  and  which  no 
supposed  solution  has  succeeded  in  finally  settling, 
were  then  regarded  as  settled,  and  frequently  they 
were  disposed  of  in  a  superficial  manner.  Under  the 
circumstances,  the  more  earnest  and  profound  minds 
lost  confidence  in  the  prevalent  philosophy,  and  meta- 
physics was  treated  with  contempt.  Tieftrunk,  a  co- 
temporary  of  Kant,  says  of  metaphysics,  "  One  could 
hardly  devote  himself  to  it  without  subjecting  himself 
to  the  suspicion  of  empty  speculation,  and  without 
being  exposed  to  the  derision  of  wits."  And  another 
cotemporary  says,  "  The  deepest  investigations  had 
degenerated  into  empty  words  and  fruitless  specula- 
tions, at  which  intellectual  men,  and  those  who  desired 
to  be  regarded  as  such,  laughed."  (^*) 

There  was,  in  connexion  with  this  popular  philo- 
sophy, a  tendency  to  a  reflection  which  turns  every- 
thing into  emotion.  It  was  a  sentimental  age,  over 
which  Rousseau,  Wieland,  and  kindred  spirits,  exerted 
great  influence.     This  sentimentality  is  a  characteristic 


226 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


of  much  of  the  German,  as  well  as  of  the  French,  lite- 
rature of  the  second  half  of  last  century.  Parallel 
with  this  ran  the  critical  spirit,  negative  in  its  results, 
and  hardly  conscious  of  what  it  wanted  except  to  de- 
stroy. In  religion  there  was  general  confusion.  Great 
names  were  derided  and  estimable  things  were  de- 
graded ;  it  was  an  iconoclastic  age,  and  it  was 
frivolous  in  its  destruction.  French  Encyclopedists, 
Voltaire,  and  Frederick  the  Great,  gave  tone  to  the 
age ;  and  French  materialism,  English  deism,  and 
German  illumination,  were  popular.  System  and  de- 
finiteness  and  certainty  were  as  much  needed  in  the 
religious  and  moral  chaos  as  in  philosophy.  It  was, 
in  fact,  a  fermenting  period  in  all  the  departments  of 
thought;  and  in  the  development  through  the  crises 
the^e  was  the  general  doubt,  confusion,  and  perplexing 
uncertainty,  which  usually  precede  an  epoch. 

While  the  Leibnitz-Wolfian  philosophy  was  domi- 
nant, we  find  that  other  systems  received  attention  and 
are  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Kant.  His  "  Kritik  "  in 
a  measure  closes  the  metaphysical  development  up  to 
that  time,  and  starts  a  new  process  of  philosophical 
speculation.  In  considering  this  work,  other  systems 
should  be  taken  into  account,  at  least  so  far  as  they 
immediately  relate  to  Kant  and  the  "  Kritik.'*  The 
English  and  French  were  superior  to  the  Germans  in 
philosophy,  and  English  philosophers,  in  particular, 
were  popular  in  Germany.  Not  till  the  "  Kritik " 
appeared  could  German  metaphysics  be  regarded  as 
equal  to  the  English ;  and  it  is  to  be  attributed  directly 
to  the  influence  of  this  work  that  the  Germans  have 
become  so  pre-eminent  in  metaphysical  thought. 

The  new  spirit  introduced  into  philosophy  by  Bacon, 


DESCARTES. 


227 


which  turned  the  mind  away  from  the  useless  specu- 
lations of  scholasticism  to  observation  and  the  laws 
drawn  therefrom,  animated  Locke  and  his  school, 
as  well  as  Newton  and  his  followers.  While  the  in- 
ductive method  of  Bacon  affected  physical  science  most, 
the  influence  of  Descartes  was  more  directly  meta- 
physical; and  instead  of  substituting  the  study  of 
physics  for  scholasticism,  Descartes  began  a  new  meta- 
physical development.  Beginning  with  doubt,  he 
introduces  the  critical  element,  and  turns  the  attention 
of  the  mind  on  itself,  in  order  to  make  it  give  the 
authority  for  its  thoughts  and  processes.  He  questioned 
the  evidence  of  the  senses,  and  even  the  mathematical 
axioms  and  the  demonstrations  built  upon  them.  But 
whatever  a  man  may  question,  behind  all  his  doubts  is 
the  consciousness  that  he  thinks ;  if,  however,  he  is 
conscious,  he  must  surely  exist,  and  thus  doubt  itself 
is  an  evidence  of  existence.  Hence  the  celebrated 
formula,  "Cogito,  ergo  sum."  In  this  we  have, 
according  to  Descartes,  a  basis  which  is  absolutely 
certain. 

Every  effect  must  have  an  adequate  cause,  a  rule  to 
which  our  ideas  are  no  exception.  Now  we  find  in  our 
minds  the  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being  ;(^^)  what  is  the 
origin  of  this  idea  ?  It  cannot  be  the  product  of  our 
own  minds,  for  it  is  greater  than  we  are.  God  Himself 
is  the  only  adequate  cause  of  this  idea  of  Himself  in 
our  minds.  But  how  did  He  communicate  it  ?  Our 
idea  of  God  cannot  have  been  given  to  us  through  the 
senses;  therefore  it  must  be  innate. (^®)  Descartes, 
however,  has  another  proof  of  the  existence  of  God, 
namely,  the  ontological  one  :  the  very  idea  of  the  most 
perfect  Being  implies  the  existence  of  that  Being,  for 

Q  2 


228 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


existence  is  a  necessary  attribute  of  such  an  idea ;  it 
could  not  be  the  idea  of  the  most  perfect  Being  unless 
that  idea  itself  involves  existence.  He  therefore  thinks 
that  God  cannot  be  thought,  except  as  existing. 

In  Descartes'  system  the  fact  of  God's  existence  is  of 
the  utmost  importance,  and  on  it  his  entire  philosophy 
rests.  The  idea  of  God  involves  that  of  truthfulness, 
as  He  could  not  be  God  without  being  truthful ;  but 
if  He  is  truthful,  then  He  must  also  have  so  made  man 
that  his  ideas  do  not  deceive  him,  must  have  created 
him  so  that  he  may  see  the  truth.  By  this  circuitous 
method  Descartes  at  last  finds  a  guarantee  that  our 
minds  are  made  for  the  truth,  and  not  to  deceive  us. 
From  this  there  is  but  one  step  to  the  conclusion  that 
whatever  we  clearly  and  consistently  think  must  also 
have  reality ;  or  thought  corresponds  with  existence. 
Hence  the  principle  of  Descartes,  that  whatever  is  dis- 
tinctly and  consistently  thought  concerning  a  thing  is 
true  of  the  thing  itself. 

Kant  rejected  his  evidence  for  the  existence  of  God, 
and  with  this  the  whole  system  fell.  With  all  the 
criticism  in  the  beginning  of  his  system,  Descartes  is, 
in  Kant's  estimation,  a  dogmatist,  since  he  accepts  the 
existence  of  God  without  satisfactory  proof.  As  far  as 
the  relation  between  our  thoughts  and  real  existence  is 
concerned,  Descartes'  view  of  God's  truthfulness  and 
the  pre-established  harmony  of  Leibnitz  amount  to  the 
same  thing.  After  his  critical  period  began,  Kant 
could  no  more  accept  the  philosophy  of  Descartes  and 
his  followers  in  France  than  he  could  that  of  Leibnitz 
and  his  disciples  in  Germany. 

On  turning  to  the  English  philosophers,  a  striking 
similarity  is  found  between  the  general  aim  of  Locke's 


LOCKE. 


229 


, 


"  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding  "  and  of  Kant's 
"  Kritik;"  so  much  is  this  the  case  that  the  aim  of 
the  *'  Kritik  "  might  be  given  in  the  language   of  the 
Essay.     Locke   says   that   it   was   his    purpose    "to 
examine  our  own  abilities,  and  to  see  what  objects  our 
understandings  were  and  were  not  fitted  to  deal  with." 
He    proposes    to    investigate   "  the    nature  of  under- 
standing,"   and    he  seeks    "  to    discover   the    powers 
thereof,  how  far  they  reach,  to  what  things  they  are 
in  any  degree  proportionate,  and  where  they  fail  us  ;" 
and  he  wants  men  to  be  more  cautious  about  meddling 
with  things  beyond  their  capacity.     These  and  similar 
expressions  of  Locke  give  exactly  Kant's  aim  in  his 
"  Kritik ;"  but  the  beginning,  the  method,  and   the 
whole   development   of  the   two   books,    are    totally 
different. 

While  Locke  denied  the  existence  of  innate  ideas, 
whether  speculative  or  moral,  he  did  not  regard  the 
mind  as  wholly  passive  or  merely  receptive,  as  seems  to 
be  implied  in  comparing  it  with  "  white  paper,  void  of 
all   characters;"  but  he   attributed   to    it  reflection, 
which  compares   and  arranges  the  impressions,    and 
draws    conclusions    from   them.     Experience   is    not 
merely  the  beginning  but  also  the  source  of  all  our 
ideas.     This  experience  is  twofold,  namely,  that  which 
we  gain  through  the  senses,  and  that   which  results 
from  observing   the    operations    of    our    own  under- 
standings,   better    called    reflection.       How    is    the 
empty    mind    furnished  ?      Locke    answers,    ''  Prom 
experience  ;  in  that  all  our  knowledge  is  founded,  and 
from  that  it  ultimately  derives  itself."     Sensation  is 
the  means  of  experience  from  external  objects,   and 
reflection    is   the    inner    sense.      "  External    objects 


ml^mUK 


1l 


230 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


HUME. 


231 


furnish  the  mind  with  the  ideas  of  sensible  qualities, 
which  are  all  those  different  perceptions  they  produce 
in  us,  and  the  mind  furnishes  the  understanding  with 
ideas  of  its  own  operations."  The  understanding 
forms  complex  ideas  by  uniting  the  simple  ones  given 
in  experience. 

That  Kant  was  considerably  influenced  by  Locke  is 
evident  from  his  numerous  references  to  him ;  but  in 
his  earlier  years,  at  least,  he  was  much  more  indebted 
to  Newton.  This  is  not  only  seen  in  his  work  on  cos- 
mogony, but  also  in  his  first  metaphysical  dissertation, 
which  aims  to  show  that  metaphysic  is  not  in  conflict 
with  the  natural  philosophy  of  Newton.  Locke's  in- 
fluence began  later. (^*)  While  it  may  be  impossible  to 
trace  the  direct  influence  of  Newton  on  the  "  Kritik," 
indirectly  it  was  great.  Kant  originally  stood  on  the 
mathematical  and  physical  basis  of  the  English  natural 
philosophers,  especially  Newton ;  the  influence  thus 
exerted  early  in  life  was  a  potent  factor  in  forming 
his  mental  habits,  and  in  leading  him  to  determine  to 
make  metaphysics  as  definite  and  as  certain  as  the 
mathematical  and  physical  sciences.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  in  becoming  a  metaphysician,  Kant  did 
not  abandon  his  early  mathematical  and  physical  basis, 
but  only  enlarged  it  by  the  addition  of  metaphysics. (^°°) 

Locke  did  not  draw  from  his  empiricism  its  legitimate 
consequences  as  fully  as  did  some  of  his  French  and 
English  followers.  The  sensationalism  and  empiricism 
which  followed  were  met  by  another  extreme,  namely, 
the  Idealism  of  Berkeley.  Like  Locke,  he  started  with 
experience  as  the  source  of  all  knowledge  ;  but  he  held 
that  in  sensation  we  have  no  direct  knowledge  of  things 
themselves,  but  only  of  impressions  made  on  our  own 


minds.     All  our  knowledge  is,   therefore,   concerned 
only  about  these  impressions,  and  does  not  at  all  deal 
with  objects  which  are  without  us.     Having  then  no 
knowledge  except  of  that  which  occurs  within  us,  how 
do  we  know  that  anything  outside  of  us  exists  ?   Is  not 
that  which  I  regard  as  an  external  world,  merely  a 
creation  of  my  own    mind?     May  it  not    be  the  re- 
sult  of  the   influence    of   the    Divine  Spirit   on    the 
finite   mind?     Berkeley  opposed  to    materiaUsm   the 
proposition,  that  the  spiritual  or  the   mental    is    the 
only  reality.  And  surely,  if  our  knowledge  consists  only 
of  the  individual  impressions  which  are  somehow  made 
on  our  minds.  Bishop  Berkeley's  view  is  rational,  and  his 
IdeaHsm  is  as  legitimate  a  conclusion  from  Locke's 
philosophy  as  materialism  is.     While  Kant  persistently 
denied  the  idealism  attributed  to  the  first  edition  of 
the  "  Kritik,"  and  opposed  the  conclusions  of  Berkeley, 
he  saw  that  the  arguments  of  the  ideaUstic  philosopher 
could   not  be  met  by    empiricism,    and    also    agreed 
with  him  that  we  have  no  direct  knowledge  of  things 
external  to  us,  but  only  of  the  impressions  made  on  our 
minds. 

While  materiahsm  and  ideaHsm  stood  helplessly 
opposed  to  each  other  on  the  same  basis,  Hume,  seeing 
the  unsatisfactory  character  of  both  systems,  became  a 
thorough  sceptic.  He  stands  on  the  same  basis  as  the 
systems  which  he  rejected,  namely,  on  Locke's  sensa- 
tionalism, admits  no  a  priori  knowledge,  and  declares 
that  we  cannot  go  beyond  experience,  since  that  is 
the  only  authority  on  which  principles  can  be  based. 
The  essence  of  mind,  as  well  as  of  matter,  is  unknown 
to  us  ;  both  are  known  only  from  their  effects  or  from 
the  impressions  which  they  make  on  us.      Like  Locke, 


i^ 


232 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


he  aims  to  confine  the  understanding  to  the  subjects 
within  its  reach,  namely,  to  experience,  and  he  wants 
to  check  the  tendency  to  give  a  loose  rein  to  the 
imagination  under  the  plea  of  philosophical  speculation. 
He,  accordingly,  regards  a  scepticism  which  checks 
wild  speculation  as  beneficial.  Aside  from  matters  of 
fact,  he  regards  the  relation  of  ideas  to  one  another  as 
the  proper  subjects  for  the  investigation  of  reason. 
Algebra,  geometry,  and  arithmetic  deal  with  the  rela- 
tions of  ideas  to  one  another,  not  with  real  objects,  and 
their  truthfulness  is  self-evident ;  but  judgments  per- 
taining to  reality  are  not  so  evident.  Hume  discusses 
especially  those  based  on  the  conception  of  cause  and 
effect.  He  views  the  category  of  causality  as  not 
obtained  from  the  things  themselves,  as  not  a  product 
of  perception ;  we  presuppose  it  without  any  demon- 
stration of  its  validity.  What  we  call  causation  is 
merely  a  habitual  observance  of  a  succession  of  the  same 
phenomena,  from  which  we  conclude  that  there  must 
be  some  necessary  connexion  between  them,  as  that  of 
cause  and  effect.  But  this  conclusion  is  invalid,  and 
we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  in  reality  any 
thing  corresponds  with  this  imagined  connexion.  What 
we  regard  as  a  real  connexion  is,  according  to  Hume,  a 
mere  conjunction.  We  know  nothing  of  the  passing 
of  what  is  called  cause  over  into  what  is  called  effect ; 
and  we  can  know  nothing  of  the  supposed  connexion 
between  the  two.  The  fact  that  we  have  never 
observed  a  change  in  the  succession  of  events,  is  no 
evidence  that  there  will  be  none  in  the  future.  Our 
faith  in  causality  is  still  more  shaken  when  we  reflect 
that  at  different  times  and  by  different  persons  the 
same  events  have  been  ascribed  to  various  causes. 


f 


Hume's  attack  on  causality. 


233 


k 


Hume's  scepticism  is  radical  in  its  effects.  It 
reduces  our  knowledge  to  isolated  perceptions,  and 
to  the  relation  of  ideas  as  in  mathematics.  A  science 
of  nature  is  impossible;  at  best,  only  probabiUty, 
not  science,  is  within  our  reach.  Not  only  are  we 
ignorant  of  external  objects  and  of  mind,  except  so 
far  as  their  impressions  on  us  are  concerned,  but 
also  of  their  laws  and  of  the  connexion  of  phenomena. 
Besides,  this  scepticism  also  affects  the  deepest  interests 
of  religion  and  morality. 

The  hints  here  given  are  essential  for  understanding 
the  influences  to  which  Kant  himself  was  subject,  and 
which  had  a  direct  eff'ect  on  the  development  of 
the  Critical  Philosophy.  There  were,  of  course, 
many  other  prevalent  philosophical  views  which 
influenced  him,  as  well  as  his  system.  Even  if,  in 
general,  he  did  not  make  the  systems  of  his  prede- 
cessors subjects  of  special  and  thorough  study,  and 
misapprehended  the  views  even  of  his  favourite  Hume, 
he  was  in  the  habit  of  seizing  their  fundamental 
principles  and  most  pregnant  points,  and  of  subject- 
ing them  to  the  crucial  tests  of  his  criticism.  In 
Hume  it  was  the  attack  on  causality  which  arrested 
his  attention,  and  gave  the  direct  impulse  which 
led  to  the  production  of  the  "Kritik."  Hamann 
wrote,  "  It  is  certain  that  without  Berkeley  there  would 
have  been  no  Hume,  just  as  without  the  latter  there 
would  have  been  no  Kant."  And  the  Critical  Philo- 
sopher himself  frequently  refers  to  Hume,  of  whom 
he  had  a  very  exalted  opinion.  In  his  Introduction 
to  the  "  Prolegomena,"  referring  to  Hume's  attack  on 
causality,  he  says,  "  I  freely  admit  that  it  was  David 
Hume's  reminder  which,  many  years  ago,  first  aroused 


Uh 


s 


234 


THR    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


ADMIRATION    FOR    HUME. 


235 


me  from  my  dogmatic  slumber,  and  gave  my  investi- 
gations in  the  field  of  speculative  philosophy  a  new 
direction."  In  meditating  on  Hume's  problem,  he 
found  that  the  conception  of  causality  was  not  the 
only  one  by  means  of  which  the  mind  conceives  things 
to  be  connected ;  and  he  saw  that  it  was  but  one  of 
the  categories  which  really  involve  the  whole  of  meta- 
physics. He  sought  for  all  these  categories,  believed 
that  he  had  discovered  them,  and  concluded  that  they 
are  not  drawn  from  experience,  as  Hume  thought,  but 
that  they  are  products  of  the  pure  understanding.  In 
the  "  Kritik "  he  states  that  Hume's  attack  on  the 
pure  reason  made  a  complete  investigation  of  that 
reason  necessary  ;  but  while  the  "  Kritik  "  was  occa- 
sioned by  Hume's  scepticism,  Kant  aimed  at  something 
deeper  and  broader  than  merely  to  meet  Hume's 
attack,  and  he  includes  the  entire  domain  of  reason  in 
his  investigation. 

Kant  speaks  in  higher  terms  of  Hume  than  of  any 
other  philosopher.  He  admired  the  finish  of  his  style, 
his  subtlety,  and  his  caution  ;  and  in  his  ''  Kritik  "  he 
calls  him  "  the  cold-blooded  one,"  who  was  peculiarly 
adapted  to  balance  arguments.  The  fact  that  Hume 
undermined  the  proof  of  God's  existence,  Kant  attri- 
butes to  the  desire  to  advance  reason's  knowledge  of 
self  and  to  make  it  more  modest.  He  calls  him  "  the 
celebrated  David  Hume,"  and  "  the  geographer  of  the 
human  reason,"  who  thought  that  he  had  disposed  of 
questions  lying  beyond  experience  by  placing  them 
beyond  the  horizon  of  reason  ;  and  he  asserts  that 
Hume  was  probably  the  most  ingenious  of  all  sceptics, 
and  that,  beyond  question,  he  was  the  most  distin- 
guished philosopher  who  produced  a  scepticism  which 


1 


made  a  thorough  testing  of  the  capacity  of  the  reason 
a  necessity. 

His  praise  of  Hume  is,  however,  not  unconditional. 
Kant  regarded  him  as  chiefly  worthy  of  note  because 
he  showed  the  unsatisfactory  character  of  the  sensa- 
tional philosophy,  proposed  great  problems,  and  gave 
impulses  which  were  calculated  to  lead  to  their  solu- 
tion. He  did  not  go  deep  enough ;  as  Kant  says,  he 
struck  a  spark  without  kindling  a  fire.  Hume  con- 
tinued in  his  scepticism;  but  the  impulse  which  he 
gave  led  Kant  from  dogmatism,  through  scepticism, 
to  criticism. (^°')  In  his  ''  Kritik,"  Kant  speaks  of 
this  as  the  natural  process  for  reason,  declaring  that 
its  first  stage,  which  marks  the  period  of  its  childhood, 
is  dogmatic  ;  the  second  is  sceptical,  and  indicates 
caution  on  the  part  of  the  judgment  which  has  been 
taught  by  experience ;  but  a  third  stage  is  necessary, 
that,  namely,  which  belongs  only  to  the  matured 
reason.  This  is  the  stage  which  does  not  merely 
investigate  the  facts  of  reason,  but  reason  itself  a  priori^ 
according  to  its  whole  capacity  and  its  ability  to  attain 
pure  knowledge.  This  is  the  critique  of  reason,  by 
means  of  which  not  merely  limits,  but  the  limits  of 
reason  are  demonstrated,  and  not  merely  ignorance  in 
one  thing  or  another  is  proved,  but  with  respect  to 
all  matters  beyond  the  reach  of  knowledge.  "  Scepti- 
cism is  thus  a  resting-place  for  human  reason,  where 
it  can  reflect  on  its  dogmatic  wanderings  and  can  take 
a  survey  of  the  field  it  occupies,  in  order  to  be  able 
henceforth  to  choose  its  way  with  more  safety ;  but  it 
is  not  a  dwelling-place  for  constant  abode,  for  this 
can  be  found  only  in  perfect  certainty,  either  of  the 
knowledge  of  objects  themselves,  or  of  the  limits  within 


236 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KAXT. 


PROCESS    OF   PHILOSOPHICAL    DEVELOPMENT. 


237 


which  all  our  knowledge  of  objects  is  confined."  He  says 
that  the  sceptic  is  the  schoolmaster  imto  the  dogmatic 
reasoner,  leading  to  a  healthy  criticism  of  the  under- 
standing and  reason.  Here  Kant  evidently  gives  a  hint 
respecting  the  process  through  which  his  own  mind 
passed.  When  his  faith  was  shaken  in  the  Wolfian  dog- 
matism, he  could  not  rest  in  Hume's  scepticism,  but  was 
impelled  to  master  it  and  pass  beyond  it  to  certainty. 
The  "  Kritik  ''  was  the  product  of  this  impulse. 

It  is  probable  that  the  metaphysical  dissertation  of 
1755  is  the  only  one  of  Kant's  works  on  metaphysics 
which  was  written  before  he  was  brought  under  the 
influence   of   Hume.     Its    statements    are   clear   and 
precise,  and  its  criticisms  are  fearless,  the  names  of 
Leibnitz    and  Wolf   forming   no    exception;    but   the 
youthful  boldness  bordering  on  presumption,  found  in 
his  first  book,  appears  less  prominently  here,  and  he 
does  not  thrust  his  antagonism  to  great  names  in  the 
foreground.     The  fact  that  the  dissertation  was  to  be 
read  before  the  philosophical  faculty,  and  was  liable  to 
be  attacked  in  the  discussion  of  its  various  points,  may 
have  moderated  its  tone.     With  all  his  independence 
of  thought,  Kant  in  this  production  proves  himself  a 
disciple  of  Wolfs  school,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to 
find  in  it  even  hints  of  the  characteristic  thoughts  of 
the  "  Kritik,"  which  appeared  twenty-six  years  later. 
But   from   the   very   beginning   of    his  authorship 
Kant  was  dissatisfied  with  the  prevalent  philosophy, 
and  in  his  first  book  he  says,  "  Our  metaphysic,  like 
so  many  other  sciences,  is  really  only  on  the  threshold 
of  thorough  knowledge.    God  only  knows  when  it  will 
pass  over  this  threshold.     It  is  not  difficult  to  see  its 
weakness  in  many  of  its  undertakings.     Prejudice  is 


.1 


^ 


often  found  to  be  its  strongest  proof.  Nothing  is 
more  to  blame  for  this  than  the  prevailing  disposition 
of  those  who  seek  to  enlarge  human  knowledge. 
They  would  like  to  have  an  extensive  philosophy ;  but 
it  is  desirable  that  it  should  also  be  deep,^^  This 
dissatisfaction  runs  through  all  his  earlier  metaphysical 
works ;  he  criticized  the  easy  and  frivolous  method  of 
philosophizing,  and  was  convinced  that  a  revolution  in 
metaphysics  was  necessary. 

Many  of  the  steps  which  led  to  the  production  of  the 
''  Kritik  "  can  be  traced  in  Kant's  metaphysical  works 
and  in  his  letters.  From  1756  till  1762  he  published 
only  a  few  short  essays.  During  this  time  he  was 
occupied  in  preparing  and  delivering  his  numerous 
lectures ;  this  was  also  the  period  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  which  was  unfavourable  for  authorship  in 
Konigsberg.  In  1763  he  investigated  the  problem 
of  causality,  stating  it  very  much  like  Hume,  "  How 
can  I  understand  that  because  something  is,  therefore 
something  else  also  is?"  He  does  not  solve  this 
problem,  but  says,  *'  I  have  reflected  on  the  nature  of 
knowledge,  and  shall,  at  some  time,  give  at  length  the 
results  of  these  contemplations.  Until  that  time,  those 
whose  presumptuous  knowledge  recognizes  no  limits 
will  pursue  their  method  of  philosophizing,  to  discover 
how  far  they  can  progress  in  the  investigation  of 
such  questions."(^^^)  From  this  it  is  evident  that  he 
is  approaching  the  critical  problem.  Kant  sees  diffi- 
culties which  others  have  either  overlooked  or  else 
expected  to  solve  vnthout  going  back  to  first 
principles.  He  is  an  investigator  who  wanders  con- 
siderably in  his  search  ;  but  he  occasionally  catches 
glimpses  of  what  he  seeks,  and  slowly  feels  his  way,  in 


238 


THE    LIFE    OP    JMMANUEL    KANT. 


HIS    VIEW    OF    METAPHYSICS. 


239 


order  to  find  the  road  which  leads  to  the  desired  object. 
There  are  limits  to  our  knowledge,  and  he  thinks  that 
he  is  on  the  way  to  their  discovery,  and  promises  to 
give  the  results  of  his  contemplations  in  the  future,  a 
promise  which  was  fulfilled  in  the  "  Kritik ;"  but  it 
would  be  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  he  had  already 
either  seized  the  problem  as  given  in  the  "  Kritik,"  or 
that  he  had  discovered  the  method  of  solution  which 
he  gave  in  that  book. 

If  he  still  follows  the  thread  of  the  Wolfian  philo- 
sophy here  and  there,  he  frequently  finds  it  broken  or 
comes  to  knots  which  he  cannot  untie.  His  course  is 
beset  with  difficulties  ;  where  others  trip  along  lightly 
over  even  ground,  he  says  that  he  sees  Alps  rise  before 
him  in  his  investigations.  His  task  is  so  difficult 
because  he  is  so  critical  and  his  aim  so  profound ;  he 
wants  to  get  behind  all  the  philosophical  results 
already  attained  and  to  probe  things  to  the  bottom. 
In  the  same  year,  1763,  he  says,  "Metaphysic  is,  with- 
out doubt,  the  most  difficult  of  the  human  sciences ; 
but  none  has  ever  been  written;"  and  he  speaks  of 
the  bottomless  abyss  of  metaphysic,  which  he  calls  "  a 
dark  ocean  that  is  shoreless  and  without  light-houses, 
where  one  must  do  as  a  seaman  on  an  untraversed  sea, 
who,  as  soon  as  he  anywhere  sets  foot  on  land,  examines 
his  passage  to  see  wTiether  unobserved  currents  in  the 
ocean  have  not  turned  him  aside  from  his  course,  in 
spite  of  all  the  care  his  seamanship  could  possibly 
exercise." ('°^)  In  the  same  book  he  also  attacked 
various  proofs  of  the  existence  of  God,  admitting  only 
one  kind  as  satisfactory,  namely,  a  form  of  the  onto- 
logical  argument;  his  rejection  of  the  other  proofs 
excited  attention  and  aroused  considerable  opposition. 


f^ 


Kant  early  penetrated  more  profoundly  the  nature 
of  metaphysic  than  his  contemporaries,  and  this  made 
his  aim,  method,  and  results,  so  different  from  those 
of  other  philosophers  of  the  day.  Instead  of  regarding 
it  as  the  aim  of  metaphysic  to  build  on  the  generally 
admitted  principles  of  knowledge,  he  thought  that  it 
should  first  of  all  investigate  those  principles  them- 
selves, and  determine  how  far  they  are  reliable  and  fit 
to  constitute  the  foundation  of  knowledge.  While 
others  were  intent  on  going  forward  without  looking 
back,  he  wanted  to  go  back  to  the  very  beginning 
and  lay  an  immovable  basis,  in  order  that  he  might 
then  go  forward  with  safety.  For  understanding  the 
aim  of  all  his  speculative  work,  a  remark  made  before 
he  was  forty  is  significant,  showing  how  profoundly 
he  already  at  that  time  grasped  the  idea  of  metaphysic  : 
"  Metaphysic  is  nothing  but  a  philosophy  of  the  first 
principles  of  our  knowledge."  The  problem  of  philo- 
sophy, as  he  apprehended  it,  deeply  interested  him, 
and  he  wrestled  with  it  persistently,  in  spite  of  his 
slow  progress  towards  its  solution ;  and  three  years 
later  he  declares  that  he  is  in  love  with  metaphysic, 
though  he  can  rarely  boast  that  the  object  of  his 
affection  has  shown  him  any  favours. 

Philosophers  were  so  much  occupied  with  their  con- 
ceptions, that  they  did  not  stop  seriously  to  consider 
whether  any  reality  corresponded  with  them.  Instead  of 
grappling  with  the  difficult  problem  of  the  relation  ex- 
isting between  a  conception  and  its  object,  philosophers 
often  identified  thought  with  being.  Kant,  however, 
showed  that  the  fact  that  an  object  is  conceivable,  does 
not  prove  its  existence,  but  only  the  possibility  of  that 
existence.     The  question  of  the  existence  itself  can  be 


N 


y 


240 


THE    LIFE    OF   IM MANUEL    KANT. 


determined  only  by  investigating  the  source  or  sources 
of  our  knowledge  of  objects.  ('"*) 

How  steadily  Kant  was  progressing  towards  the 
**  Kritik  '*  is  evident  from  his  book  of  1766,  entitled, 
"Dreams  of  a  Ghost-seer  explained  by  Dreams  of 
Metaphysics."  It  is  aimed  specially  at  Swedenborg, 
but  gives  significant  hints  on  all  kinds  of  fanaticism, 
and  severe  thrusts  at  the  dreamers  in  metaphysics. 
In  it  we  find  a  union  of  profound  speculation  with 
playful  humour.  Next  to  the  Inaugural  Dissertation  of 
1770,  this  book  is  the  most  important  for  understanding 
that  development  of  Kant's  mind  which  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  Critical  Philosophy.  He  already 
classes  Wolf  among  the  philosophical  dreamers,  and 
regards  him  as  a  man  who  built  with  but  little  material 
that  was  furnished  by  experience,  and  for  this  reason 
freely  used  surreptitious  conceptions  in  rearing  his 
structures ;  and  he  regards  Crusius  as  a  man  who  con- 
structed a  system  out  of  nothing,  by  means  of  the 
magic  power  of  a  few  sentences  about  the  thinkable 
and  the  unthinkable ;  and  both  of  these  philosophers 
he  calls  builders  of  air-castles.  He  sees  that  a  crisis  in 
philosophy  is  at  hand,  is  sure  that  the  dreamers  will  soon 
awake,  after  which  philosophers  will  be  able  to  dwell 
together  in  the  same  world  of  thought ;  his  basis  for  this 
hope  is  in  "  certain  omens  which  have  for  some  time  ap- 
peared on  the  horizon  of  the  sciences."  With  ghost-seers 
he  has  no  patience,  and  he  is  an  enemy  of  fantastic  no- 
tions of  every  kind.  He  says,  "  I  do  not  know  whether 
there  are  spirits ;  yes,  what  is  more,  I  do  not  even  know 
what  the  word,  spirit,  means."  And  he  adds,  "  The 
attempt  to  make  serious  efforts  to  explain  the  whims 
of   fantastic    persons  makes    a  bad    impression,    and 


,r-( 


f 


KNOWLEDGE    OF    SPIRITS. 


241 


i 

I 


f 


philosophy  thereby  excites  the  suspicion  that  it  is  found 
in  bad  company."  Kant  wants  ghost-seers  to  be  treated 
as  candidates  for  an  asylum. 

Some  of  the  conclusions  of  the  "Kritik"  are 
anticipated  by  this  book  on  dreams.  However  boast- 
ful the  assertion  may  seem,  he  thinks  that  he  has  finally 
established  the  fact  that,  while  we  may  have  opiiiions 
respecting  spirits,  we  can  know  nothing  about  them. 
And  he  makes  the  significant  declaration,  that  our 
philosophical  doctrine  concerning  spirits  may  be  com- 
plete and  final,  but  only  "  in  a  negative  sense,  since 
this  doctrine  fixes  with  certainty  the  limits  of  our 
knowledge,  and  convinces  us  that  the  various  mani- 
festations of  life  in  nature,  and  their  laws,  are  all  that 
we  can  know ;  but  that  the  principle  of  this  life,  that 
is,  the  spiritual  element  which  we  suspect  but  do  not 
know,  never  can  be  conceived  positively,  because  for 
this  there  are  no  data  in  our  entire  experience ;  and 
this  philosophical  doctrine  produces  the  conviction 
that  we  must  be  content  with  negations  respecting  the 
conception  of  anything  so  different  from  all  objects  of 
sense.  But  the  very  possibility  even  of  such  negations 
rests  neither  on  experience,  nor  on  arguments,  but  on 
mere  invention,  to  which  reason,  deprived  of  all  help, 
takes  refuge."  Thus  he  thinks  that  he  has  already 
so  far  determined  the  limits  of  reason  as  to  be  justified 
in  asserting,  that  we  can  understand  only  phenomena, 
and  their  laws,  but  not  what  lies  back  of  them,  a  con- 
clusion whose  demonstration  is  found  in  the  "  Kritik." 
So  confident  is  Kant  that  he  has  finally  settled  that 
we  can  know  nothing  about  spirits,  that  he  says, 
*'  Henceforth  I  lay  the  whole  subject  of  spirits,  which 
is  an  extensive  domain  of  metaphysics,  aside  as  com- 

R 


I 


242 


THH]    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


pleted  and  settled.  In  the  future,  it  shall  no  more 
concern  me.  While  I  thus  limit  the  plan  of  my 
investigations,  and  entirely  reject  some  altogether 
useless  inquiries,  I  hope  to  be  able  to  use  my  weak 
powers  more  advantageously  for  the  consideration  of 
other  subjects.  It  is  mostly  in  vain  to  apply  the  small 
measure  of  one's  talents  to  all  kinds  of  airy  projects. 
Prudence,  therefore,  dictates  that  in  this,  as  well  as 
in  other  cases,  our  plans  should  be  adapted  to  our 
capacities,  and  that  we  should  limit  ourselves  to  the 
mediocre,  if  we  cannot  attain  what  is  great." 

Since  questions  about  spirits  are  idle,  the  reasons 
for  or  against  their  existence  can  "  hardly  determine 
any  tiling  respecting  the  future  state  of  the  upright. 
Neither  has  the  human  reason  the  wings  which  will 
enable  it  to  part  the  high  clouds  which  conceal  from 
us  the  mysteries  of  the  other  world ;  and  to  the  curious 
who  try  to  discover  these  mysteries,  the  simple  but 
very  natural  advice  may  be  given,  that  it  would 
probably  be  more  advisable  to  wait  till  they  get  there." 
We  know  that  we  are  related  to  beings  hke  ourselves, 
by  means  of  physical  laws ;  but  we  cannot  determine 
whether  we  are  related  to  beings  by  other  than  natural 
laws.  The  heart  contains  precepts  which  should  be 
followed  for  their  own  sake,  and  Kant  decidedly 
opposes  the  utilitarian  view  of  virtue,  which  really 
loves  vices,  but  avoids  them  for  the  sake  of  obtaining 
a  reward  hereafter.  The  hope  of  the  future  may  exist 
in  a  heart  which  still  cherishes  vicious  inclinations. 
"  But  there  probably  never  lived  a  righteous  soul  which 
could  bear  the  thought  that  death  is  the  end  of  all,  and 
whose  noble  disposition  did  not  rise  to  the  hope  of  the 
future.     Therefore  it  seems  more  proper  for  human 


METHODS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 


243 


nature  and  for  the  purity  of  morals,  to  base  the  expec-  ) 
tation  of  a  future  world  on  the  emotions  of  a  good ' 
soul,  than  inversely  to  base  the  goodness  of  the  soul 
on  the  hope  of  another  world."  Kant  also  argues  in 
favour  of  a  moral  faith,  which  may  be  raised  above  all 
the  subtleties  of  reasoning  and  which  alone  can  lead  a 
man  directly  to  attain  the  true  end  of  his  being. 

The  two  possible  methods  of  knowledge,  which  play 
so  prominent  a  part  in  the  "Kritik,"  namely,  the  dpriori 
and  the  a  posteriori,  are  also  discussed  in  this  book. 
Kant  says  that  some  teachers  of  natural  science  claimed 
that  all  knowledge  must  begin  with  the  latter  method, 
and  in  following  this  rule  they  imagined  that  they 
"  caught  the  eel  of  science  by  the  tail;"  but  they  soon 
discovered  that  this  method  was  not  philosophical 
enough,  and  that  in  adopting  it  they  came  to  subjects 
which  they  could  not  explain.  Other  scientists  began 
dpriori  with  the  highest  principle  in  metaphysics ;  "  but 
in  this  there  is  a  new  difiSculty,  namely,  that  one  begins, 
I  know  not  where,  and  comes,  I  know  not  whither,  and 
that  the  reasoning  will  not  reach  experience."  Instead 
of  meeting  and  forming  one  system,  it  was  found  that 
the  metaphysical  conceptions  and  experience  ran 
parallel  with  each  other ;  and  it  seemed  as  if  the  philo- 
sophers had  agreed  among  themselves  to  let  each  one 
begin  and  end  where  he  pleased,  and  to  reach  at  last 
just  the  conclusion  he  desired. 

Metaphysics  aims  to  solve  problems  respecting  the 
hidden  qualities  of  things ;  but  the  hopes  excited  are 
often  disappointed  in  the  solutions  given.  There  is, 
however,  another  aim  of  metaphysics,  namely,  to  deter- 
mine whether  a  question  can  be  solved,  and  to  indicate 
the  relation  of  problems  to  experience,  on  which  our 

R  2 


N. 


I 


244 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


judgment  must  at  all  times  be  based.  Referring  to 
the  second  aim,  namely,  the  determination  of  the 
solvability  of  problems,  he  says,  "  In  so  far  metaphysic 
is  the  science  of  the  limits  of  human  reason.^^  This  is 
significant  for  the  view  it  gives  of  Kant's  apprehension 
of  the  sphere  of  metaphysics.  What  he  here  defines 
as  a  province  of  metaphysics,  he  a  few  years  later 
pronounced  its  propaedeutics,  and  not  a  part  of  the 
system  itself ;  but  in  his  old  age  he  seems  again  to 
have  returned  to  a  conception  of  metaphysics  similar 
to  that  given  in  1766. 

If  he  has  given  no  new  views  in  this  book,  Kant 
claims  that  he  has,  at  least,  destroyed  illusions,  and 
that  vain  knowledge  which  inflates  the  understanding 
and  holds  the  place  which  might  be  occupied  by  the 
teachings  of  wisdom.  ''  Like  Democritus,  we  formerly 
wandered  about  in  empty  space,  whither  the  butterfly 
wings  of  metaphysic  had  taken  us,  and  we  entertained 
ourselves  with  spirits.  Now  that  the  styptic  power  of 
self-knowledge  has  drawn  together  the  silk  wings,  we 
find  ourselves  again  on  the  low  ground  of  experience  and 
of  the  common  understanding.  We  are  fortunate, 
indeed,  if  we  regard  this  as  our  assigned  place,  which 
we  can  never  leave  with  impunity,  and  which  also 
contains  all  that  is  necessary  to  satisfy  us  so  long  as 
we  confine  ourselves  to  the  useful."  No  bounds 
should  be  fixed  to  the  desire  for  learning  except  the 
limits  of  knowledge ;  but  from  the  innumerable  problems 
which  arise,  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  choose  those 
whose  solution  is  important.  In  the  course  of  time, 
science  becomes  modest  and  suspicious,  and  it  says. 
How  many  things  there  are  which  I  do  not  understand  ! 
But   when    reason,    taught   by    experience,    becomes 


I 


I 

i 


1 


WISDOM. 


245 


wisdom,  it  says  cheerfully,  as  Socrates  did  amid  the 
goods  of  a  fair.  How  many  things  there  are  which  I  do  not 
need !     What  can  I  know  ?     What  do  I  need  ?     These 
are   the  two  questions  to  which  reason  and  wisdom 
demand  an  answer ;  and  the  answer  to  them  should 
be  the  limit  of  the  sphere  in  which  philosophical  inquiry 
moves.     There  is  here,  as    so  often  in  his  works,  a 
union  of  the  speculative  and  the  practical  interests ; 
and  if  Kant  makes  any  distinction  in  the  importance 
of  the  two,  it  is  in  favour  of  the  practical ;  for  it  is  the 
matured  reason  which  he  pronounces  wisdom,  and  this 
it  is  which  limits  itself  to  the  useful  amid  the  com- 
prehensible problems.     *'  In  order  to  choose  rationally 
one  must  first  know  what  can  be  dispensed  with  and 
what  is   impossible.     Science   at  last  determines  the 
limits  fixed  for  it  by  the  nature  of  the  human  reason. 
All  bottomless  plans,  which  may  in  themselves  not  be 
unworthy,  but  which  lie  beyond  the  sphere  of  men,  flee 
to    the  limbus   of  vanity.     Metaphysic  will  then  be- 
come  something    from   which   it  is   now   pretty    far 
removed,  and  what  would  least  of  all  be  expected  from 
it,  namely,  the  companion  of  ivisdom.      For  so  long  as 
faith  in  the  possibility  of  attaining  such  remote  know- 
ledge exists,  wise  simplicity  will  in  vain  declare  that 
such    undertakings  are  useless.     The  pleasure  which 
attends  the  increase  of  knowledge  is  likely  to  appear 
to  be  a   duty,  and   it  easily  regards  intentional   and 
planned  contentment  within  limits,  as  stupid  simplicity 
which  opposes  the  ennobling  of  our  nature.     In  the  be- 
ginning, questions  pertaining  to  the  spiritual,  to  freedom, 
to  predestination,  to  a  future  state,  and  the  like,  arouse 
all  the  powers  of  the  understanding ;  and  on  account 
of  their  importance,  these  subjects  draw  the  mind  into 


.i   "N 


246 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


the  contentions  of  a  speculation  which  indiscriminately 
subtilizes  and  decides,  asserts  or  contradicts,  according 
to  what  seems  most  probable.  But  when  the  investi- 
gation is  converted  into  philosophy,  which  judges  its 
own  processes,  and  does  not  merely  understand  objects, 
but  also  their  relation  to  the  human  understanding, 
then  the  limits  are  drawn  more  closely,  and  those 
landmarks  are  fixed  which  never  again  permit  the  in- 
vestigation to  leave  its  peculiar  territory.  Some 
philosophy  was  necessary  in  order  to  learn  the  difficulty 
of  comprehending  a  conception  which  is  usually  treated 
as  Very  easy  and  as  an  every-day  affair.  A  little 
more  philosophy  removes  still  farther  this  phantom 
of  knowledge,  and  convinces  us  that  it  lies  altogether 
beyond  man's  horizon.  For  in  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect,  of  substance  and  action,  philosophy  at 
first  aids  in  untangling  the  complicated  phenomena 
and  in  reducing  them  to  simpler  conceptions.  But 
when  the  fundamental  relations  have  at  last  been  dis- 
covered, the  work  of  philosophy  is  at  an  end ;  and  it 
is  impossible  for  reason  to  comprehend  how  anything 
can  be  a  cause,  or  can  have  force,  since  these  relations 
must  be  drawn  solely  from  experience."  Kant  pro- 
ceeds to  show  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  mind  to 
understand  how  anything  can  bring  about  something 
that  is  different,  that  is,  can  be  a  cause.  "  That  my 
will  moves  my  arm,  is  no  more  comprehensible  to  me 
than  if  some  one  were  to  assert  that  the  same  can  hold 
back  the  moon  in  its  course;  there  being  only  this 
difference,  that  I  experience  the  former,  but  I  have 
never  experienced  the  latter.  I  recognize  in  myself 
changes  as  in  a  subject  which  lives,  namely,  thoughts, 
choices,  and  the  like  ;   and  since  these  operations  differ 


LETTEPw   TO   MOSES    MENDELSSOHN. 


247 


: 


from  those  which  constitute  my  notion  of  a  body,  I 
naturally  conclude  that  there  is  within  me  an  im- 
material and  enduring  being.  But  whether  this  can 
think  without  connexion  with  the  body,  can  never  be 
determined  by  reflection  on  this  being,  of  which  we 
have  a  knowledge  only  from  experience." 

These  extracts  show  how  rich  this  book  on  Dreams 
is  in  germs  which  were  developed  in  the  "  Kritik.*' 
The  prevalent  metaphysic  is  vague  and  dreamy  ;  it  must 
be  changed  in  toto  if  it  is  to  rest  on  a  firm  basis ;  the 
limits  of  the  reason  must  be  determined,  and  speculation 
must  be  confined  to  them ;  consistent  thought  is  no 
evidence  that  outside  of  the  mind  there  is  an  object 
corresponding  with  it,  but  experience  is  the  only  sure 
evidence  of  existence  ;  the  whole  domain  of  spirits  and 
of  a  future  life  lies  beyond  the  sphere  of  science; 
reason  limits  us  to  the  knowable,  wisdom  to  the  useful  : 
these  and  numerous  other  thoughts  and  hints  are  fore- 
runners of  Kant's  chef-d'oeuvre^  which  was  wrought 
out  after  fifteen  years  more  of  severe  toil. 

A  letter  to  the  popular  philosopher,  Moses  Mendels- 
sohn, also  written  in  1766,  gives  additional  evidence  of 
his  intense  absorption  in  the  contemplation  of  meta- 
physical  problems.  He  regards,  as  he  says  in  this 
letter,  the  metaphysics  of  the  day  with  aversion  and 
even  with  hatred.  The  welfare  of  the  whole  human 
race,  he  thinks,  depends  on  metaphysics;  for  this 
reason  he  is  grieved  that  it  has  so  degenerated  as  to  be 
useless  and  even  injurious.  The  time  has  come  when 
dogmatism  must  be  destroyed,  and  when  a  sceptical 
method  is  necessary  to  free  the  minds  of  men  from 
their  fictitious  knowledge.  Since  experience  teaches 
us  nothing  respecting  spiritual  beings,  the  question  is 


i 


248 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


whether  a  priori  anything  respecting  them  can  be  de- 
termined ?     It  cannot  be  proved  that  there  are  spiritual 
forces   at    work,  neither   can    it    be  disproved;     and 
Kant  says  in  this  letter,  that  if  one  were  to  attack  the 
possibihty  of  Swedenborg's  dreams,  he  himself  would 
undertake  to  defend  that  possibility.     The  question  to 
be  decided  is,  whether  we   can  know  anything  of  the 
nature  of  the  soul  that  will  enable  us  to  determine  its 
relation  to  matter  as  well  as  to  beings  of  its  own  kind. 
Kant  in  this  letter,  as  well  as  in  the  book,  shows  that 
he  is  deeply  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  reason 
has  limits,  and  that  he  is  intent  on  their  discovery. 

From  1766  until  the  appearance  of  the  "  Kritik,"  in 
1781,  there  is  a  long  silence,  broken  only  by  a  few 
brief  articles,   and  by  the   Inaugural  Dissertation  of 
1770,  which  he  was  obliged  to  present  in  order  to  be- 
come a  professor.     As  Kant  had  let  the  public  hear 
from  him    frequently,  this  silence  was    ominous  and 
naturally   caused   surprise.      Lavater,  the   celebrated 
physiognomist,  wrote  to  him  in  1774,  "  Are  you  dead 
to  the  world?     Why  do  so  many  scribble  who  cannot 
write,  while  you,  who  can  do  it  so  well,  do  not  write  ? 
Why  are  you  silent  in  this  new  period,  and  why  do 
you  let  no  whisper  be  heard  ?     Are  you  asleep  ?    Kant 
— no,  I  will  not  praise  you  ;  but  do  tell  me  why  you 
are  silent,  or  rather  tell  me  that  you  will  speak."     The 
philosopher,  no  doubt,  explained  his  silence,  but  his 
answer  is  lost.     In  Lavater's  second  letter,  written  in 
the  same  year,  we  find  a  reference  to  the  "  Kritik," 
seven  years  before  its  appearance.     Lavater,  who  was 
a  Swiss,  wrote,  "  Together  with  many  of  my  country- 
men,  1  am  eagerly  awaiting    your   '  Kritik    of  Pure 
Reason.' ''  ('*>*)     Kant  had  probably  written    that   he 


LONG    SILENCE. 


249 


i 


y 


needed  time  to  mature  his  thoughts,  and  Lavater  says 
that  he  will  curb  his  desire  for  the  appearance  of  the 
"  Kritik,"  if  Kant  believes  that  the  work  will  be  made 
more  perfect  by  delay,  and  adds,  "  Thousands  of 
authors  do  not  carry  their  work  to  that  decisive  point 
which  makes  an  epoch.  You  are  the  man  to  do  this. 
Penetration,  learning,  taste,  and  that  human  element 
which  so  many  authors  lack,  and  which  the  prevailing 
criticism  does  not  think  it  worth  while  to  consider, 
characterize  your  writings  to  such  an  extent  that  I 
expect  more  from  you,  in  this  respect,  than  from  any 
one  else." 

This  period  of  protracted  literary  silence,  when  he 
was  brooding  over  the  problems  of  the  "  Kritik,"   is 
the  very  time  when  we  want  most  of  all  to  learn  the 
processes  going  on  in  his  mind.     Fortunately  his  cor- 
respondence gives  us  glimpses  of  them,  especially  that 
with  the  philosopher  and  mathematician,  J.  H.  Lam- 
bert.    It  was  begun  in  1765,  by  Lambert,  who  de- 
sired to  secure  Kant's  co-operation  for  the  improve- 
ment of  metaphysics,  and  suggested  that  to  this  end 
they  communicate  to  each  other  their  thoughts  on  the 
subject.     Wolf,  he  thinks,  knew  how  to  go  on,  but 
not  very  well  how  to  begin;  yet,  "if  any  science  should 
be   followed  methodically  from  the   very  start,  it  is 
metaphysics."     It  will  not  do  to  begin  with  endless 
analysis  ;   the  beginning  should  be  made  by  means  of 
synthesis,    according   to  Euclid's    method.     Lambert 
expects  much  from  Kant,  whose  mode  of  thinking  he 
finds  very  similar  to  his  own. 

Kant  answered  with  unusual  prpmptness  the  letter 
of  the  celebrated  man,  who,  he  thought,  could  aid  him 
more   in   his   investigations   than   any   one   else;    he 


250 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


CORRESPONDENOK   WITH    LAMBERT. 


251 


accepts  his  proposal  and  proceeds  to  give  an  outline 
of  his  speculations.     For  years,  he  says,  he  has  held 
his   philosophical   speculations    in   every   conceivable 
.    light,  in   order  to  discover  sources  of   error  and  to 
study  the  method  of  mental  procedure,  and  he  thinks 
that  at  last  he  is  sure-  of  the   method  which  must  be 
pursued  to  escape  the  illusion  that  a  valid  conclusion 
has  been  attained,  which  must,  however,  afterwards 
be   rejected,   and   the  steps   already   taken   must   be 
retraced.     Since  the  discovery  of  this  method,  he  at 
once  sees,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  investigations 
in  hand,  what  he  must  know  to  solve  a  particular 
problem,  and  he  also  sees  what  degree  of  knowledge 
is  determined  by  that  which  is  given.     The  result  is, 
that  the  conclusian  is  often  more  limited  than  is  usual, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  more  definite  and  more 
sure.     He  intends  to  give  all  the  thoughts  referred  to 
here,  in  "  The  Peculiar  Method  of  Metaphysics,"  on 
which  subject  he  had  intended  to  have  a  book  ready 
by  the  next  spring,  but  he  deferred  the  matter  because 
he  did  not  yet  have  all   the   illustrations   which   he 
needed;    before  publishing  this  work   he,   therefore, 
proposes  to  prepare  some  smaller  books,  namely, "  The 
Metaphysical  Principles  of  Natural  Science,"  and  "  The 
Metaphysical  Principles  of  Practical  Philosophy."  ('^) 
In  this  letter  he  also  states  that  the  time  has  come 
when  the  old  metaphysic,  with  its  endless  movement 
in  circles,  must  perish,  and  he  says,  ''  You  are  right 
in  complaining  of  the  eternal  daUiance  of  the  witKngs, 
and  of  the  tedious  garrulity  of   the  writers    of   the 
prevalent  fashion  who  have  no  other  taste  than  to  talk 
about  taste.     But  it  seems  to  me   that   this   is  the 
euthanasia  of  false  philosophy,  since  it  dies  with  silly 


sports ;  it  would  be  far  worse  if  it,  engaged  in  profound 
but  false  speculations,  were  to  be  buried  with  the  pomp 
of  a  severe  method.  Before  a  genuine  philosophy  can 
arise,  it  is  necessary  for  the  old  metaphysic  to  destroy 
itself;  and  as  decomposition,  which  always  takes  place 
when  a  new  product  is  to  appear,  is  the  most  complete 
destruction,  and  as  there  is  no  lack  of  good  minds, 
therefore  the  crisis  in  learning  inspires  me  with  the 
hope  that  the  long-desired  revolution  in  the  sciences 
is  no  longer  very  distant." 

From  Lambert's  reply,  early  in  1766,  it  is  not  only 
evident  that  his  conception  of  metaphysics  was  very 
profound,  but  also  that,  in  some  respects  at  least, 
he  was  on  the  same  track  as  Kant.  Instead  of  hasty 
generalization,  he  wants  the  introduction  of  a  more 
critical  method  which  will  limit  the  investigation  to 
the  knowable ;  and  instead  of  being  content  with 
hypotheses  which  delay  the  discovery  of  truth,  he 
thinks  it  better  to  acknowledge  our  ignorance;  and 
instead  of  the  complex  in  knowledge,  he  thinks  that 
the  simple  should  be  sought,  and  believes  that  Locke 
was  on  the  right  track  for  its  discovery.  Comparing 
mathematical  with  metaphysical  knowledge,  he  calls 
attention  to  the  indefiniteness  of  the  latter ;  when,  for 
instance,  mathematicians  enter  a  field  till  then  culti- 
vated by  metaphysicians,  they  are  obliged  to  undo  all 
that  the  latter  have  done,  and,  as  a  result,  philosophy 
itself  is  brought  into  contempt. 

Kant,  with  his  usual  neglect  of  his  correspondence,  ' 
did  not  write  again  till  1770,  when  he  sent  a  letter, 
and  also  his  Inaugural  Dissertation,  to  Lambert.    This 
letter  contains  a  hint  which  justifies  the  conclusion 
that  in  1769  the  method  of  the  ''  Kritik  "  had  its  birth. 


252 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


DEATH    OP    LAMBEKT. 


253 


"  For  about  a  year  I  flatter  myself  tliat  I  have  attained 
that  conception  which  I  have  no  fear  that  I  shall  ever 
change,  though  I  may  expand  it,  by  means  of  which 
all   kinds   of   metaphysical   questions   can   be   tested 
according  to  sure  and  easy  criteria,  and  by  means  of 
which  it  can  be  decided  with  certainty  how  far  their 
solution  is  possible.''     But  ten  years  more  were  still 
necessary  to  develop  and  fortify  this  method.     Kant 
refers  in  this  letter  to  various  literary  plans,  all  of 
which  were,  however,  deferred  till  after  the  completion 
of  the  ''  Kritik."     During  the  winter  of  1770-71,  he 
proposes  to  investigate  "pure  moral  philosophy,"  in 
which  no  empirical  elements  are  found,  and  also  to 
systematize  his  "Metaphysics  of  Morals;"    but  this 
book  did  not  appear  till  fifteen  years  later.     Then  he 
wants  to  submit  to  Lambert  his   "  Essays  on  Meta- 
physics," assuring  him  that  he  will  not  let  a  single 
proposition  stand  which  Lambert's  judgment  does  not 
find  perfectly  evident ;  "for  if  it  cannot  get  this  ap- 
proval, then  the  aim  to  found  this  science  on  principles 
altogether  unquestionable  is  a  failure."     A  book  from 
him  with  this  title  never  appeared ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  he  intended  to  publish  the  critical  thoughts  thus 
far  developed,  in  a  book  entitled  "  Essays  on  Meta- 
physics."    He  also  states  that  he  intends  to  give  a 
preparatory  treatise,  whose  design  is  to  be  the  pre- 
servation of  metaphysics  proper  from  all  admixture  of 
sense. 

Lambert,  replying  immediately,  criticized  the  view 
of  time  and  space  given  in  Kant's  Dissertation,  and 
claims  that,  instead  of  being  mere  subjective  conditions 
of  knowledge,  they  also  have  objective  reality.  For 
some  time  he  had  tried  to  form  a  league  of  scholars  to 


i 


work  out  metaphysical  problems  according  to  a  com- 
mon plan,  and  to  publish  the  results;  but  he  was 
discouraged,  because  he  saw  from  the  catalogues  that 
everything  else  was  being  pushed  aside  by  belles- 
lettres,  though  he  cherishes  the  hope  that  there  will 
be  a  return  to  the  profound  sciences.  It  was  his 
desire  to  make  Kant  a  prominent  member  of  this 
learned  league. 

As  Lambert  had  begun,  so  he  also  ended  this 
interesting  correspondence.  Kant  never  submitted 
the  proposed  Essays,  and  Lambert  did  not  live  to  see 
the  "Kritik."  He  died  in  1777,  at  the  age  of  forty- 
nine.  Kant  was  waiting  to  let  his  thoughts  ripen 
before  submitting  them  to  his  friend,  after  whose 
death  he  wrote,  "I  had  some  ideas  of  a  possible 
improvement  in  metaphysics,  which  I  desired  to 
mature  in  order  to  send  them  for  criticism  and  de- 
velopment to  my  deeply  penetrating  friend.  All  the 
hopes  which  I  had  based  on  so  important  a  help 
vanished  at  the  unexpected  death  of  this  extraordinary 
genius."  He  had  expected  much  from  a  union  of 
Lambert's  efforts  with  his  own  for  the  production  of 
something  reliable  and  complete;  while  he  does  not 
now  despair  of  accomplishing  this,  he  regards  it  as 
more  tedious  and  more  difficult  since  he  is  deprived  of 
the  assistance  of  so  great  a  mind. 

This  correspondence  is  but  one  of  the  many  evi- 
dences that  the  speculations  of  Kant  were  timely,  and 
that  the  "  Kritik,"  however  striking  the  contrast 
between  it  and  other  works  of  the  period,  was  really 
a  product  of  the  age.  Other  deep  thinkers,  beside 
Kant,  felt  the  need  of  a  change  in  metaphysics ;  and 
Lambert   at   least  was   pursuing  a  track  which  was 


254 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUBL    KANT. 


THE    SCIENCE    AND    THE    UNDERSTANDING. 


255 


similar  to  that  which  led  to  the  Critical  Philosophy. 
Numerous  historical  threads  are  seen  in  the  literature 
and  tendencies  of  the  age,  all  of  which  run  to  the 
"  Kritik." 

The  Inaugural  Dissertation  of  1770,  "  On  the  Form 
and  Principles   of  the   Sensible    and   the    Intelligible 
World,"  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  tracing  the 
development  of  the  "  Kritik."      While  heretofore  the 
spirit  and  the  tendency  of  Kant's  writings  have  chiefly 
interested  us,  it  is  different  with  this  Dissertation.     It 
was  presented  to  the  philosophical  faculty  when  he 
became  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics,  and  we 
naturally  look  for  a  positive  statement  of  his  meta- 
physical views.     As  he  discusses  the  sense  and  the 
understanding,  we  expect  to  learn  definitely  his  view 
of  these  faculties.    Philosophers,  at  that  time,  generally 
made  the  distinction  between  the  two  a  difference  in 
degree,  not  in  kind ;  one  of  quantity,  not  of  quality. 
It  was  thought  that  the  objects  of  both  are  the  same, 
but  that  in  sensation  these  objects  are  presented  to 
the  mind  with  less  clearness  than  in  the  understanding. 
But,  according  to  Kant,  the  understanding  does  not 
differ  from  the  sense  in  the  degree  of  clearness  with 
which  it  presents  objects,  but  there  is  a  difference  in 
kind.('°')     Sensation  is  the  receptivity  of  the  subject 
which  enables  it  to  receive  impressions  from  external 
objects  ;  the  understanding  is  the  ability  of  the  subject 
to  represent  to  itself  that  which,  according  to  its  very 
nature,  cannot  be  an  object  of  the   senses.     The  two, 
therefore,  have  different  objects,  and  Kant  says,  "  The 
object  of  the    senses  is  the   sensible;    but  whatever 
contains  nothing  except  that  which  can  be  understood 
only  by  the  understanding,  is  the  intelligible.     In  the 


schools,  the  former  was  called  by  the  ancients  Fhe- 
7iome7ion,  the  latter  Noumenon.^^     Sensation  gives  only 
representations  of  things  as  they  seem  to  be ;  but  the 
understanding  gives  representations  of  things  as  they 
are.     He  also  indicates  the  difference  in  the  origin  of 
the  objects  of  sense  and  those  of  the  understanding. 
While  sensation  receives  its  impressions  from  external 
things,  the  understanding  receives  its  objects  neither 
from  these  nor  from  the  sensations,  but  they  are  the 
product  of  the  understanding  itself.     To  the  latter, 
for  instance,  belong  all  moral  conceptions,  which  are 
not  learned  from  experience,  but  originate  in  the  under- 
standing.   Kant  thus  makes  a  real  distinction,  in  origin 
as  well  as  in  kind,  between  the  perceptions  of  sense  and 
the  conceptions  of  the  understanding,  and  says,  "  I 
fear,  therefore,  that  Wolf,  vho  held  that  the  difference 
between  that  which  is  perceived  and  that  which  is  a 
product  of  the  understanding  is  only  logical,  brought 
the  celebrated  investigations  of  antiquity  respectino- 
the  nature  of  phenomena  and  noumena  into  oblivion, 
to  the  great  disadvantage  of  philosophy ;  for  in  turning 
the   attention   away  from   this   investigation   he   has 
frequently  directed  it  to  mere  trifles." 

The  "  Kritik  "  itself  must  be  studied  in  order  to  see 
the  far-reaching  consequences  of  this  distinction 
between  these  two  faculties.  Kuno  Fischer  says, 
"The  difference  thus  established  between  sensation 
and  understanding  is  the  first  insight  of  the  critical 
philosophy.''  Already  in  this  dissertation  Kant  as- 
signs to  each  faculty  its  own  world,  and  the  distinc- 
tion which  he  makes,  gives  him  a  new  definition  of 
metaphysics.  In  1766  he  defined  it  as  the  philosophy 
of  the   first  principles   of   our   knowledge;    now   he 


II 


ii 


25G 


THE    LIFE    OF    TMMANUEL    KANT. 


defines  it  as  the  philosophy  which  contains  the 
principles  of  the  use  of  the  pure  understanding.  (^°^) 
The  science  preparatory  to  metaphysics  is  the  one 
which  teaches  the  difference  l)etween  the  knowledge 
obtained  through  the  sense,  and  that  obtained  through 
the  understanding ;  and  this  dissertation  is  an  essay 
to  give  the  propasdeutics  to  metaphysics. 

There  are  no  empirical  elements   in   metaphysics ; 
therefore  its  conceptions  are  not  to  be  sought  in  sensa- 
tion, but  in  the  nature  of  pure  understanding.     While 
Kant  rejects  the  doctrine  of  innate   ideas,  he   holds 
that  the  conditions  for  the  production  of  the  objects 
of  the  understanding  are  in  the  understanding  itself, 
and .  that  its  activity  need  but  be  properly  aroused  in 
order  to  produce  its  conceptions;  the  very  laws  of 
thought   will  evolve   them.     These   conceptions    are, 
therefore,  acquired,  being   learned   by  observing  the 
activity  of  the  mind ;  and  they  are  such  as  possibility, 
reality,  substance,  cause,  and  the  like,  with  their  oppo- 
sites  or  correlatives.    They  do  not  inhere  in  any  sensible 
representations,  are  not  elements  of  such  representa- 
tions,  and  therefore  cannot  possibly  be  abstracted  or 
drawn  from  them.     But  if  not  produced  by  sensation, 
they  must  be  the  product  of  the  mind  itself. 

More  remarkable  than  this  distinction  between 
sense  and  understanding,  is  Kant's  peculiar  view  of 
time  and  space,  given  here  for  the  first  time ;  a  view 
which  plays  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  his  philosophy, 
which  met  with  so  much  opposition  when  first  an- 
nounced, and  which  has  been  the  subject  of  a  long 
controversy  that  is  not  yet  ended.  Only  two  years 
before  the  dissertation  appeared,  he  had  declared  that 
space  is  not   merely  an  object   of  thought,  but  also 


TIME    AND    SPACE. 


257 


something  external  to  the  mind;(^^^)  at  that  time, 
therefore,  the  theory  of  time  and  space  contained  in 
the  Critical  Philosophy  was  not  yet  formed.  But  in 
this  dissertation  it  is  given  with  unmistakable  clear- 
ness, and  it  is  interesting  to  examine  the  first  state- 
ment of  this  important  theory.  Kespecting  time,  his 
first  proposition  is,  "  The  notion  of  time  does  not 
arise  from  the  senses,  but  is  presupposed  by  them;" 
he  thus  rejects  the  prevalent  view  that  our  notion  of 
time  is  drawn  from  experience,  namely,  by  observing 
the  series  of  events  or  things  following  one  another. 
Before  we  can  get  a  conception  of  things  as  existing 
at  the  same  time  or  successively,  we  must  first  have 
the  notion  of  time  itself.  In  fact,  all  our  conceptions 
of  things  occurring  in  time  presuppose  the  notion  of 
time;  therefore  this  notion,  instead  of  arising  from 
experience,  must  precede  our  knowledge  of  things  in 
time. 

"  Time  is  nothing  objective,  nothing  real,  no  sub- 
stance, no  accident,  no  relation ;  but  it  is  a  subjective 
condition  which,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  mind, 
makes  it  necessary  to  co-ordinate  all  things  according 
to  a  certain  law,  and  it  is  a  pure  intuition."  While 
time  is  only  an  imaginary  thing  {ens  imaginarium)^  it 
is  nevertheless  absolutely  necessary  as  a  condition 
for  the  perception  of  objects.  It  is  a  primitive  and 
original  perception.  Time  is  absolutely  the  first 
formal  principle  of  the  sensible  world ;  (^^^)  for  sensible 
things  can  be  perceived  only  either  simultaneously  or 
successively. 

His  theory  of  space  and  its  relation  to  perception 
is  similar  to  that  of  time.  His  first  proposition  is, 
that  the  notion  of  space,  like  that  of  time,  is  not  drawn 


l<: 


258 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


from  experience.  We  cannot  perceive  an  object 
except  as  in  space ;  therefore  the  possibihty  of  the 
perception  of  external  objects  presupposes  the  notion 
of  space,  and,  consequently,  this  perception  cannot 
create  that  notion.  Only  what  is  in  space  can  affect 
the  senses  ;  space  itself  cannot. 

His  second  proposition  is,  that,  like  time,  space  is 
an  individual  perception  which  includes  all  spaces 
within  itself,  not  under  it  as  the  general  mcludes  the 
particular.  (^^0  Several  spaces  are  only  parts  of  one 
immeasurable  space ;  therefore  the  parts  of  space  are 
.  not  related  to  space  itself  as  species  and  genus,  but 
simply  as  parts  to  a  whole. 

His  third  proposition  is,  that  the  notion  of  space  is 
a  pure  perception,  for  it  is  a  single  perception,  not  one 
compounded  from  experience ;  it  is  the  ground-form 
for  the  perception  of  all  external  objects. 

Fourth  proposition :  ''  Space  is  nothing  objective 
and  real,  is  no  substance,  no  accident,  no  relation ; 
but  it  is  subjective  and  ideal,  and  emanates  from  the 
nature  of  the  mind  according  to  an  unalterable  law ; 
it  is,  so  to  speak,  the  form  for  the  co-ordination  of  all 
that  is  experienced  from  without.'* 

In  his  last  proposition  Kant  states  that  while  space 
IS    merely    imaginary,   it   nevertheless    contains   real 
truth  in  relation  to  all  sensible  things,  and  is  the  basis 
of  all  knowledge  respecting  the  external  world ;  for 
objects  can  appear  to  the  senses  only  by  means  of  that 
power  of  the  mind  which  co-ordinates  the  experiences 
according   to    an    unalterable    law   implanted   in   its 
nature.     We  can  perceive  an  object  of  the  senses  only 
according  to  the  original  axioms  of  space  and  the  con- 
elusions  drawn  from  them.     The  notion  of  space,  like 


Mendelssohn's  view  of  the  dissertation.       259 

that  of  time,  is,  accordingly,  the  condition  for  the 
perception  of  all  sensible  objects.  ("')  And  the 
notion  of  space,  as  well  as  of  time,  is  learned  from  the 
action  of  the  mind,  and  is  not  in  any  way  drawn  from 
objects.  C'')  While  thus  Kant  does  not  make  the 
notions  of  space  and  time  innate,  the  law  according  to 
which  the  mind  acts,  and  from  which  they  arise,  is  of 
course  innate. 

Academic  dissertations  generally  receive  but   little 
attention,  and  that  may  be  a  reason  why  this  signifi- 
cant one  did  not  excite  more  interest.     Nor  was  the 
abstract  nature  of  the  discussion  calculated  to  attract 
many  readers.     Evidently  the  fact  was  not  appreciated 
that  there  were  germs  in  Kant's  dissertation  which 
need  only  be  developed  and  appHed  in  order  to  pro- 
duce  a  revolution  in  metaphysics.     But  there  was  at 
least  one  mind  which  suspected  that  its  author  had  in 
reserve  a  whole  system,  of  which  he  now  gave  only 
hints.     Moses  Mendelssohn  read  the  dissertation  with 
great   pleasure,   as   he  states   in  a   letter  to   Kant; 
though,  on  account  of  the  weak  state  of  his  nerves, 
he  was  hardly  able  to  grasp  anything  so  profoundly 
speculative.     However,  he  had  the  acuteness  to  see 
that  it  was  the  forerunner  of  a  new  system,  and  wrote 
to  Kant,  ''  One  sees  that  this  little  book  is  the  result 
of  very  long  meditation,  and  that  it  must  be  viewed 
as  part  of  a  whole  system  which  is  peculiar  to  the 
author,  and  of  which  he  is  willing  at  present  to  exhibit 
only  a  few  specimens.     Even  the  apparent  obscurity  of 
some  parts  leads  the  skilful   reader  to  suspect  that 
there  is  an  entire  system  which  is  not  yet  presented  to 
him.     In  the  meanwhile,  it  would  be  to  the  advantage 
of  metaphysics,  which  now,  alas  !  has  so  degenerated, 

s  2 


i 


ii 


-»^-^ 


260  THE   LIFE   OF    IMMANtJEIi   KANT. 

if  you  would  not  withhold  too  long  your  present  supply 
of  meditations.     Life   is   short ;    and  while  one   still 
cherishes  the  hope  of  improving  it,  how  soon  the  end 
approaches  I     And   why   do   you   so   greatly   fear   to 
repeat  what  has  already  been  said  before  you  ?     In 
connexion  with  the  thoughts  peculiarly  your  own,  even 
the  old  always  appears  in  a  new  light,  and  gives  views 
which  were  not  thought  of  before.     Since  you  possess 
in  a  high   degree  the   talent  of  writing  for  many 
readers,  it  is  to   be  hoped  that  you  will  not  write 
exclusively  for  the  few  adepts  who  are  eager  only  for 
what  is  new,  and  can  guess  from  the  half-said  what 
yet  remains  concealed." 

Mendelssohn  has  been  regarded  as  a  forerunner  of 
Kant,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  some  respects  he 
prepared  the  way  for  him.  He  himself  found  that 
some  of  Kant's  views  were  similar  to  his  own,  which, 
as  he  says  in  this  letter,  were  given  in  a  book  which 
was  in  press  before  the  dissertation  was  received,  but 
he  did  not  think  them  so  profoundly  developed  by 
himself  as  by  Kant.  The  letter,  however,  decidedly 
opposes  the  view  of  time  given  in  the  dissertation,  and 
claims  that  it  is  both  the  subjective  condition  of 
perception  and  something  that  is  objective. 

Eighteen  months  after  the  Inaugural  Dissertation 
appeared,  Kant  wrote  a  long  letter  to  Dr.  Marcus 
Herz,  in  Berlin,  in  which  he  gives  a  view  of  his  specu- 
lations at  that  time,  stating  that  he  has  already  made 
considerable  progress  in  determining  the  difference 
between  the  sensible  and  the  intelligible  in  morality, 
has  considered  quite  satisfactorily  the  principles  of  the 
emotions,  of  the  taste,  and  of  the  judgment,  and  their 
influences  as  seen  in  the  agreeable,  the  beautiful,  and 


THE   LIMITS   OF   SENSE   AND   REASON. 


261 


\ 


r 


the  good.  He  has  also  planned  a  work  which  might 
be  entitled,  ''  The  Limits  of  Sense  and  Reason,"  which 
was  intended  to  have  both  a  theoretical  and  a  practical 
part.  The  theoretical  section  was  to  discuss,  first, 
phenomenology  in  general ;  secondly,  the  nature  and 
method  of  metaphysics  :  the  practical  section  was  to 
discuss,  first,  the  general  principles  of  feeling,  of  taste, 
and  of  the  sensualistic  desires;  secondly,  the  first 
principles  of  morality.  From  this  it  is  evident  that 
the  contemplated  work  on  "  The  Limits  of  Sense  and 
Reason,"  which  never  appeared,  was  intended  to  dis- 
cuss subjects  which  were  afterwards  treated  in  his 
three  critiques.  Kant  mentions  as  a  neglected  point, 
which  he  is  investigating,  the  relation  of  perception 
to  the  object  perceived.  The  question  he  has  been 
considering  is,  whether  in  our  perception  we  have 
only  a  product  of  the  influence  of  the  object  on  our 
senses,  or  whether  the  mind  itself  produces  the  per- 
ception ?  The  conclusion  which  he  has  arrived  at  is, 
that  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  is  the  case,  but  that 
there  is  an  object  external  to  our  minds,  and  that  there 
are  also  categories  of  the  understanding,  and  that  in 
our  perceptions  both  co-operate.  How  then  does  it 
happen  that  our  minds  have  conceptions  which  har- 
monize with  the  objects  ?  He  admits  that  the  answers 
given  to  this  question  always  leave  some  obscurity  in 
the  mind  respecting  the  harmony  existing  between  the 
understanding  and  \kiQ  objects  of  the  sense. 

The  sources  of  the  intellectual  conceptions  must 
be  known  by  him  who  wants  to  understand  the  nature 
and  the  limits  of  metaphysics.  Kant  had  accordingly, 
as  he  states  in  this  letter,  tried  to  bring  all  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  pure  reason  under  the  head  of  certain 


i 


•F 


■\ 


\- 


262  THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

.  -      •.«  nnd  he  thinks  that  he  has  already  succeeded, 
■'  "*Tr;  In  doLg  this ;  and  he  is  now  ready  to  give 
r-t^S 'o"pu  e'Reas;n/'  he  says,  which  contams 
I.  Sure  of  Theoretical  as  well  as  practical  knowledge 
fL  asit  is  only  intellectual.     He  expects  to  work 
llXuUt  within  three  n^onths  the  first  part  of 
th  s"  Mik,"  discussing  the  sources,  n^ethod,   and 
Ws  oLetlphysics;  after  that  he  P-PO-  ^  ^ ^ 
out  the  pure  principles  of  morality.     So  ntently  is  he 
::gaged'n  considering  these  problems  that  he  wants 
to  think  of  nothing  else  profoundly. 

WhUe  Kant  has   already  found  the  name  for  his 
git  work,  it  is  evident  that  he  has  not  ye    formed 
fhe  plan  on  which  it  was  finally  constructed.     The 
Ze!  months  became  three  times  tbree  years    all  of 
them    spent    in    intense    application.      In    177b    ne 
Irote  to  Herz  that  he  had  been  much  censured  for 
raVtivity,  and    yet  he  had  never   toiled    more   sys- 
r  S^  or  m'ore  continuously.     The  letter  st^es 
that,    instead  of  pubhshing  ^ometh^nsiovthe^.^^ 
nf   temporary   popularity,    as    he    might    do,    be  is 
VZTon  I  work  by  means  of  which  he  hopes  to 
TaL  a  permanent  reputation.     For  this  he  has  already 
Sought  out  the  material,  and  it  is  only  necessary  for 
Sm To  work  it  over ;  when  it  is  finished  he  expels  to 
have  a  clear  field,  and  to  engage  m  work  which  will  be 
only  a  pleasure.     Whoever  understands  the  nature  of 
the  task  he  had   undertaken  will   not  think  Kant  s 
declaration  strange,  that  obstinacy  was  -cessa^  to 
Dursue  persistently  such  a  plan  as  his,  and  that  the 
difficulties  had  frequently  tempted  him  to  engage  in 
tTer  and  more  agreeable  work;  but  he  was   saved 
from  yielding  to  this  temptation  by  overcoming  the 


CHANGES   IN   THE    PLAN    OF   THE    "  KRITIK." 


263 


■4 


I 


obstacles  and  by  the  consideration  of  the  importance  S 
the  subject.  As  the  whole  field  of  reason  must  be 
examined  in  order  to  accomphsh  his  aim,  experience 
cannot  help  him.  The  letter  states  that  he  wants  to 
determine,  according  to  reliable  principles,  "  the  whole 
compass  of  reason,  its  departments,  its  limits,  its  entire 
contents ;"  and  he  desires  so  to  mark  the  boundaries 
that  in  the  future  one  may  know  with  certainty 
whether  he  is  on  the  basis  of  reason.  In  order 
that  this  may  be  accomplished,  he  thinks  that  an 
entirely  new  science  of  reason  is  necessary,  in  the  con- 
struction of  which  nothing  already  existing  can  be 
used.  He  expects  to  finish  the  work  in  the  summer  of 
1777,  yet  has  his  fears  that  he  may  be  disappointed : 
fears' which  were  well  grounded,  for,  as  he  says,  he  was 
constantly  subject  to  indisposition. 

The  letters  of  this  period  give  some  idea  of  the 
enormous  amount  of  labour  which  the  "  Kritik  "  cost 
its  author.  Repeatedly  he  thought  that  it  was  nearly 
done,  when  he  found  that  the  work  again  grew  on  his 
hands,  "  I  do  not  think,"  he  says,  "  that  many  have 
attempted  to  plan  an  entirely  new  science  and  have 
also  completed  it ;"  and  he  thinks  that  Herz  cannot . 
imagine  the  amount  of  time  and  labour  required  for 
the  accomplishment  of  this.  He,  however,  hopes  to 
give  philosophy  an  entirely  different  direction,  one 
which  will  be  more  advantageous  to  religion  and 
morality ;  and  he  also  hopes  to  give  it  a  form  which 
will  attract  mathematicians,  and  make  them  regard  it 
worthy  of  their  attention. 

Kant's  correspondence  also  indicates  that  he  fre- 
quently changed  his  plans.  When  the  book  was 
already  in  press,  he  wrote  to  Herz  that  the  **  Kritik  '' 


264 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


LABOUR    SPENT    ON    THE    WORK. 


265 


*'  contains  the  results  of  all  kinds  of  investigations, 
which  began  with  the  ideas  which  w^e  discussed  under 
the   title  of  the  Mundi  Sensibilis  and  Intelligibilis," 
referring  to  his  Inaugural  Dissertation.    At  other  times 
he  expected  to  limit  the  contents  much  more.     It  may 
surprise  some  that  at  any  time  Kant  regarded  such  a 
"Kritik"  as  lying  outside  of  the  sphere  of  metaphy- 
sics;  but  this  significant  passage  occurs   in   a  letter 
written  to  Herz  in  the  winter  of  1774-75:   "I  shall 
rejoice  when  I  have  finished  my  transcendental  philo- 
sophy, which  is  really  a  critique  of  pure  reason.    I  shall 
then  work  on  metaphysic,  which  has  only  two  parts, 
namely,  the  metaphysic  of  nature  and  that  of  morals,  of 
which  I  expect  to  publish  the  latter  first ;  and  I  already 
rejoice  over  it  in  anticipation."      At  this  time,  there- 
fore,  he  held  the  view  which  he  also  held  for  years 
after  the  "  Kritik  "  appeared,  that  it  was  only  the  pre- 
paration for  metaphysics ;  nevertheless  he  regards  it  as 
belonging  to  transcendental  philosophy.     His  letters 
and  books,  together  with  his  last  manuscript,  show 
that  his  view  of  metaphysic  was  subject  to  numerous 

changes. 

That  the  plan  of  the  work  should  have  been 
subject  to  many  alterations  is  not  strange,  especially 
when  the  many  years  required  for  its  development  are 
considered.  The  subjects  discussed  were  held  in  every 
light,  and  they  were  the  burden  of  his  thoughts  during 
his  recreation  as  well  as  in  his  study.  Kant  himself  in- 
formed Borowski  that  the  plan  of  the  "  Kritik"  was 
made  during  his  promenades  on  the  way  named  after 
him,  ''The  Philosopher's  Walk."  While  his  own 
letters  show  with  what  absorbing  attention  he  was 
devoting  himself  to  the  work,  Hamann's  letters  of  1779 


and  1780  also  speak  of  him  as  still  incessantly  engaged 
on  it.  Those  who  marvel  at  the  contents  of  the 
"Kritik"  should  remember  that  it  embodies  the  results 
of  twelve  years  of  the  intensest  efforts  of  Kant's  great 
intellect. 


^ 


206 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUETi   KANT, 


CHAPTER  IX. 

AUTHORSHIP   CONTINUED.      . 

Publication  of  the  "  Kritik  "— Hamann's  impressions  of  the  book- 
Difficulties  of  the  work— Deiects  and  excellencies— Aim— 
J  priori  and  a  posteriori  knowledge-Analytic  and  synthetic 
iudgments-Transcendental  assthetics-The  Categories-The 
reason-Charge  of  idealism-Das  Ding  an  Sich-God,  the 
soul,  freedom,  immortality-Ontological,  cosmological,  and 
physico-theological  proofs  of  God's  existence— Result  ot  the 
"Kritik"— "Prolegomena  "-"Metaphysical  Principles  ot 
Natural  Science  "— "  Critique  of  the  Judgment  "—Conflict  of 
the  faculties — Last  manuscript 

Kant  made  arrangements  in  December,  1780,  for  the 
publication  of  the  "  Kritik."     The  publisher,   Hart- 
knoch,  lived  in  Riga,  but  the  book  was  printed  in  Halle. 
Professor  Kraus,  speaking  of  Kant,  says,  "  He  asked 
nothing  for  his '  Kritik.'  Hartknoch,  of  his  own  accord, 
however,   gave   him  four  dollars  a   sheet,  and  Kant 
regarded  the  money  received    from   Hartknoch  for 
every  new  edition  as  a  present."     The  professor  also 
states  that  Kant  had  offered  the  book  to  Hartung,  a 
pubhsher   in  Konigsberg,   who,  however,  refused   to 
undertake  the  work,  because  the  author  had  frankly 
told  him  that  he  had  his    doubts  whether  the  book 
would  pay  expenses.     Kant  expected  the  "  Kritik  "  to 
appear  at  Easter,  1781 ;  but  it  was  delayed  until  the 


t 


PUBLICATION    OF    THE    '*  KBITIK 


»5 


267 


summer  of  that  year.     It  was  dedicated  to  the  Cabinet 
Minister,  Von  Zedlitz,  who  had  shown  such  marked 
favour  to  Kant,  and  was  a  great  admirer  of  his  works. 
As    the    printing    of    the    book    progressed,    the 
publisher,  who  was  a  friend  of  Hamann,  sent  advance 
sheets  to  him,  as  well  as  to   Kant.     In  his  letters 
Hamann   gives   his   impression  of  the  parts  as  they 
appeared,  and  these  are  the  first  notices  we  have  of 
the   work      When  the  first  sheets   came,   he   wrote, 
humorously,    that  he  had  prepared  himself  with    an 
ounce  of  Glauber's  salt  to  digest  them.     To  the  pub- 
lisher  he  wrote  on  April  8th,  1781,  that  he  had  received 
the  first  thirty  sheets  on  the  6th,  and  that  on  the 
next  day  he  had  devoured  the  whole,  but  that  he  lost 
the  thread  of  the  discussion  in  the  chapter    on  the 
Interests  of  the  Reason.     "  I  should  think  that  the 
book  would  no  more  be  in  want  of  readers  than  Kiop- 
stock's '  German  Republic'  is  in  need  of  subscribers.     I 
skipped  a  few  sheets,  because  theses  and  antitheses 
were  on  opposite  pages,  and  1  found  it  difficult  to  keep 
hold  of  the  double  thread  in  a  rough  copy.    .    •    • 
According  to  human  probability,  it  will  attract  atten- 
tion  and  will  be  the  occasion  of  new  investigations, 
revisions,  et  cetera.     But  there  will  probably  be  few 
readers  who  can  master  its  scholastic  contents,     ihe 
interest  grows  with  the   progress  of  the  discussion, 
and  there  are  charming  oases  after  one  has  long  been 
wading  in  the  sand.     Altogether,  the  work  is  rich  m 
prospects   and  in  leaven  for  new  fermentation   both 
within  and  without  the  circle  of  philosophers."     What 
be  has  read  makes  him  eager  for  the  completion  of  the 
work,  so  that  he  may  read  the  whole.  ^ 

The  advance  sheets  taxed  Hamann's  powers  to  the 


\) 


hamann's  impressions, 


269 


268  TflB    I'IFB   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT, 

Utmost  and  on  April  21st  he  wrote  to  Herder,  "  As 
rfold  hearer  of  Kant,  you  will  probably  undersW 
him  better.  .  .  It  seems  to  me  that  the  whole  tends 
to  a  new  organon.  new  categories,  and  not  so  much  to 
a  new  scholastic  construction  as  to  sceptic  tactics. 
And  he  adds,  « I  am  anxious  to  learn  how  you  feel 
when  you  read  the  Kantian   '  Kritik.'      I  have  said 
savienti  sat  to  the  transcendental  twaddle  about  the 
legal  or  the  pure  reason  ;  for  it  seems  to  me  that  m 
theend  all  tends  to  sophistry  and  empty  verbiage.   (    ) 

He  thinks    that  the   size  of  the    book  corresponds 
neither  with  the  size  of  the  author  nor  with  the  idea 
of  pure  reason.     Again  he  wrote  to  Herder,      I  am 
curious  to  know  your  view  of  Kant's  ^^^^^^^J^'  ^  " 
He  deserves  to  be  called  the  Prussian  Hume.     It  seems 
to  me  that  his  whole  transcendental  theology  tends  to 
an  ideal  of  entity.     With  respect  to  space  and  time  he 
•s"  without  knowing  it.  more  fanatical  than  Plato  in 
the  intellectual  world."     Hamann,  who  was  a  great 
admirer  of    Hume,  prefers  him  to  Kant     and  says 
«Hume    is    always  my  man,    because   he    at    least 
ennobles  the  principle  of  faith,  and  has  received  jt  into 
his  system.  .    .    •   Hume's  dialogues  close  with  the 
Jewish  and  Platonic  hopes  of  a  coming  prophet ;  Kant 
is  rather  a  cabalist  who  makes  an  Eon  into  a  Dmjity  in 
order  to  establish  mathematical  certainty,  which  Hume, 
geometry  excepted,  limited  rather  to  arithmetic. 
^  Hamann  expected  the  last  sheets  of  the  book  m  the 
beginning  of  June,  but  on  the  19th  they  had  reached 
neiUer  Wm  nor  Kant.     Finally,  he  wrote  to  Herder 
August  5th,  that  a  week  ago  he  had  received  a  bound 
copy  of  the  «  Kritik."  This  fixes  July.  1781.  as  the  time 
of  its  appearance. 


j; 


It  seems  that  Hamann  had  been  requested  by  Kant 
himself  to  review  some  of  his  writings,  and  he  pub- 
lished  a  review  of  his  book  on  the  Beautiful  and  the 
Sublime.     He  had    also    prepared    a  review  of  the 
"Kritik  "  for  a  paper  in  Konigsberg,  but  was  afraid  to 
pubUsh  it.  lest  he  might  wound  his  sensitive  friend. 
Though  an  admirer  of  Kant's  speculative  and  ana- 
lytical powers,  he  could  not  adopt  his  philosophy  as  a 
whole.     While  seeing  much  in  it  to  admire,  there  was 
also  much  which  seemed  to  him  one-sided  or  defective. 
For  the   people  in  general   he  pronounced  it  "too 
abstract  and  too  precious."     Owing  to  its  high  ideals, 
he  thought  the  book  might  be  called  Mysticism  as  well 
as  the  "  Kritik  of  Pure  Eeason."   He  told  Kant  that  he 
liked  his  work,  "all  except  the  mysticism."     Kant, 
who  had  a  dread  of  everything  of  the  kind,  and  had 
aimed  to  put  an  end  to  it  by  means  of  this  book,  was 
astonished,   and  could  not  imagine  how    mysticism 
could  have  gotten  into  the  book.     To  Hamann  this 
was  evidence  that,  without  knowing  it,  all  philosophers 

are  fanatics. 

Hamann  thought  that,  for  the  sake  of  mathematical 
demonstration,  the  "  Kritik "  ignored  too  much  the 
heart,  intuition,  and  faith.  His  later  views  of  the  book 
were  not  more  favourable  than  the  first  impressions, 
and  he  wrote :  *•  It  seems  to  me  that  the  step  from 
transcendental  ideas  to  demonology  is  not  far."  In 
a  letter  to  Jacobi  he  makes  this  statement:  "The 
ambiguity  of  the  word  'reason'  tends  altogether  to 
Jesuitical  chicanery.  For  the  world,  I  cannot  under- 
stand how  two  men  like  Kant  and  Euler  can  smoke 
out  of  the  same  pipe,  and  can  practise  so  gross  a 
deception  for  the  purpose  of  burdening  their  adver- 


DIFFICULTIES    OF   THE    BOOK. 


271 


270 


THE    LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


saries."  Hamann  sees  sophistry  in  the  *'  Kritik,"  regards 
the  book  as  prolix  and  calculated  to  mislead.  When 
Kant's  "  Basis  of  the  Metaphysics  of  Morals  "  appeared 
in  1785,  Hamann  wrote  that,  instead  of  the  pure  reason, 
there  is  here  a  new  fiction  of  the  brain  and  a  new 
idol,  namely,  the  good  will,  and  adds,  "Even  his 
enemy  must  admit  that  Kant  is  one  of  our  keenest 
minds ;  but  alas  !  his  acuteness  is  his  evil  demon,  just 
as  Lessing's  was  his ;  for  a  new  scholasticism  and  a 
new  papacy  are  the  two  Midas'  ears  of  our  age."  In 
his  opinion,  the  "Kritik"  is  often  suspended  on  a  logical 
spider-web  ;  but  he  also  said,  years  after  the  work 
appeared,  "Pure  reason  and  a  good  will  are  still 
words  to  me  whose  meaning  my  understanding  cannot 

grasp." 

The  difficulties  to  which  Hamann  referred  have  been 
experienced  by  all  the  readers  of  the  "  Kritik"  and  Kaut 
himself  was  aware  of  their  existence.  To  Mendelssohn 
he  wrote,  that  the  work  was  the  product  of  at  least 
twelve  years  of  thought,  but  that  he  had  written  out 
the  whole  in  four  or  five  months,  hurriedly,  as  it  were, 
paying  the  closest  attention  to  the  substance,  but  less 
to  the  style,  and  also  making  but  little  effort  to  render 
the  book  easy  for  the  reader.  Kant  admits  that  this 
makes  the  work  difficult ;  still,  he  does  not  regret  that 
he  completed  it  in  that  way ;  for  if  the  work  had  been 
longer  delayed  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  more 
popular,  it  might  not  have  appeared  at  all.  Its  lack 
of  perspicuity,  he  thinks,  can  be  remedied  in  the  course 
of  time.  He  states  that  he  is  already  too  old  to  give, 
with  uninterrupted  efi*ort,  completeness  to  an  extensive 
work,  and,  at  the  same  time,  with  file  in  hand,  make 
each  part  round,  smooth,  and  graceful.     While  he  had 


> 


t 


the  material  for  the  explanation  of  every  difficult  point, 
he  says  that  in  vvrriting  out  the  book  he  did  not  want 
to  be  obliged  to  attend  to  this  matter ;  he  hopes  to 
do  this  in  the  future,  when  different  parts  of  the  book 
are  attacked  and  explanations  are  made  necessary. 
Then,  he  says,  when  one  has  worked  out  a  system  and 
has  become  familiar  with  its  thoughts,  he  cannot  easily 
guess  what  in  it  may  to  the  reader  seem  obscure,  or 
indefinite,  or  not  sufficiently  proved.  ^^ 

The  various  letters  written  by  Kant  while  the  "Kntik 
was  in  process  of  preparation  confirm  his  statement  to 
Mendelssohn  respecting  his  great  care  with  reference 
to  the  contents,  and  also  reveal  the  hopes  which  were 
centred  in  the  work  ;  and  in  his  "  Prolegomena  "  he^ 
states  that  he  carefully  weighed  every  sentence.     Not 
only  did  it  take  years  to  put  the  book  in  a  shape  to 
satisfy  him,  it  frequently  took  a  long  time  and  great 
care  before  he  could  satisfy  himself  respecting  a  single 
sentence.     While  pleased  with  the  work  as  a  whole, 
Kant   regarded  some   parts   as   prolix   and  therefore 

obscure. 

The  mere  mechanical  labour  of  writing  a  book  so 
large  as  the  "  Kritik  "  in  four  or  five  months  must  have 
been  quite  a  task.  In  writing  it  "  hurriedly,"  as  he 
said  he  did,  the  style  naturally  suffered,  the  more  so 
because  Kant  neglected  that  and  devoted  his  attention 
to  the  substance.  Complaints  respecting  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  work  are  heard  from  scholars,  as  well  as 
from  the  general  reader.  While  some  persons  lay 
down  the  book,  despairing  of  ever  mastering  its  con- 
tents,  others  totally  misinterpret  it,  and  publish  their 
misinterpretations  as  Kant's  doctrines.  His  own  dis- 
ciples   have   engaged   in   bitter   disputes    as    to   the 


-I 


H 


/ 


> 


I 


272  THK   LIFE   OF  IMMANCEL   KANT. 

meaning  of  the  master's  words,  and  there  have  been 
striking  differences  among  the   Kantians  as  well  as 
Imt^the  Hegehans.     Many  of  the  difficult.es  of  the 
«  Kritik"  are  largely  due  to  the  nature  of  the  subjects 
discussed,  to  the  abstract  character  of  its  thoughts, 
and  the  novelty  of  the  method.     Kant  states,  in  the 
Preface,  that  it  was  impossible  to  adapt  the  work  to 
popular  use,  and  that  it  was  intended  for  adepts  in 
science  who  did  not  so  much  need  explanations  which 
he  had  therefore  given  less  frequently  than  would  other- 
wise have  been  the  case,  lest  the  book  might  become 
too  large.     He    also  believed    that   difficulties  have 
their  attractions,  since  their  solution  by  the  reader 
serves  to  flatter  his  vanity. 

The  multitude  of  subjects  discussed,  and  the  wealth 
of  the  profound  thought,  embarrass  the  student  and 
add  to  the  difficulty  of  following  the  author.(    )     Some 
of  the  most  important  t<jrms   are  used  m  different 
senses.     That  there  are  not  merely  parts  which  it  is 
difficult  to  harmonize,  but  that  there  are  actual  con- 
tradictions, is  now  generally  admitted.     A  thought  is 
introduced,  dropped,  then  taken  up  again  ;  numerous 
secondary  matters  are  discussed,  and  side-issues   are 
introduced,  while  the  main  thought  is  held  m  abeyance. 
The    introduction  of   apparently   extraneous  matter 
seems  to  conflrm  Kant's   statement  that  the  work 
"  contains    the   results    of    all    kinds    of    investiga- 
tions  "  ("')     There  is  often  a  confusing  prohxity  where 
the  importance  of  the  subject  makes  a  short,  clear 
and   definite  statement  particularly  desirable.     Some 
things  are  repeated  so  often,  either  in  the  same  or 
similar  phraseology,   as  to  become   tedious ;  and  at 
times  the  amount  of  material  carried  along  m  an  argu- 


r 


EXCKLLENCIKS  OF   THE   WORK. 


273 


„.ent   is  so   great  that  the  ^l^^^'^'lr^Zl^l 

almost  buried  under  'f ^^^^^ l^^^^Zl^'.^T.o 
rlusion  is  finally  reached,  it  is  exceeumgij 

ri  correctLss.     Whilst  one  aW/^--  ^l, 
mastering  the  separate  parts,  what  .^^^^^  ^e  s^^^^^^^^ 
their  relation  to  each  other  and  their  complete  syn 
thesis  9    When  these  facts  are   considered,  we  shall 
be  Ible  the  better  to  comprehend  how  idea^^sm  and 
rlSm,   scepticism  and  dogmatism,  rat^^m  and 
mysticism,  could  attach  themselves  to  the    Kr^k       it 
is  a  rich  mine  with  various  ores  and  many  veins     and 
;:  haToftTn  happened  that  persons  of  t^e  m-t  d.v^^^^^^^ 
tendencies  have  found,  or  imagined  that  tteyjounci 
iust  the  ore  they  sought,  because  each  one  worked 
Cy  a  particular  vein  or  mistook  the  nature  of  the 

TTiptal  whicli  he  discovered. 

B^tTn  spite  of  these  patent  defects,  m  which  we 
have  reflections    of   mental  characteristics  of   Kant 
-11     «f  Ilk  Habilitv  to  distraction,  taking  the 

/"otlcelWe,  in  which  it  stands  without  a  m,^ 
i„  ancient  as  well  as  modern   times  ?     The  work  is 
1  of  Ac    marvels  of   philosophical  literature,  on 
"ac^unt  of  its  subject,  its  aim,  the  o-P^^;-- 
nf  if ^  scoDe  its  method,  its  profundity  and  novelty, 
the  sta   Hng   haracter  of  leading  thoughts  the  epoch 
t  made  in  philosophy,  the  vast  literature  it  has  already 
occasioned  and  is  stiU  inspiring,  and  the  new  direction 
whTcn  gave  to  thought.     No  other  book  of  any  age 
Lshad  so  deep  and  broad  and  abiding  an  influence 
on   the  metaphysical  thought   of   Germany ;  and  not 
onlv    have  men  like  Fichte.   Schelling,   Hegel,    and 
stopenLuer,   developed  their  systems  from  germs 


.1 


I 


1 


f 


1 


m 
4- 


( 


/ 


274 


THE    LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


found  in  the  "  Kritik,"  but  science,  theology,  morals, 
and  general  literature,  have  received  new  impulses  and 
new  directions  from  this  work. 

When  the  greatness  of  this  work  is  considered  and 
its  marvellous  influence,  it  is  not  strange  that  Kant  is 
known  chiefly  as  the  author  of  the  "Kritik."    While  this 
work  is  too  much  the  man  himself  to  be  dismissed  with 
a  passing  notice,  an  analysis,  or  extended  account,  or  a 
criticism   of  its  contents,  lie  beyond  the  province  of  a 
biography,  and  would  require  a  volume  to  be  complete 
and  valuable.     Nor  is  this  necessary,  since  many  of  the 
thoughts  of  the  book  have  been   embodied  in  modem 
philosophy,  and    largely  even  in  literature;  and   the 
English  reader  will  be  able  to  form  a  good  idea  of  its 
contents  from  translations  and  from  accounts  of  it  by 
Enghsh  writers.     A  very  general  summary,  descriptive 
rather  than  critical,  of  some  of  the  main  features  of  the 
work,  must  here  suffice. 

Kant  wanted  to  make  metaphysics  a  positive  science. 
He  spoke  so  contemptuously  of  the  prevalent  philo- 
sophy because  it  was  so  vague,  built  massive  super- 
structures on  mere  hypotheses,  and  accepted,  as  abso- 
lute and  final,  great  principles  without  demonstrating 
their  validity.     Where  he  found  dreams,  opinions,  and 
faith,  in  the  philosophy  of  the  day,  he  wanted  axioms. 
His  hatred  of  dogmatisnf  was  the  more  intense  because 
he  himself  had  been  subject  to  its  dominion.     Doubt 
has  its  mission,  but  only  as  the  underminer  of  error 
and  the  guide  to  truth ;  as  a  system  of  philosophy, 
scepticism  is   a   testimony   of   mental   weakness  and 
of   despair    in   the    search    for   truth.     When  Hume 
destroyed  the  basis  of  Kant's  dogmatism,  the  critical 
metaphysician  could  not  rest  in  the  scepticism  of  the 


EXPERIMENTAL    KNOWLEDGE. 


275 


Scotch  philosopher,  for  his  mind  demanded  axiomatic 
certainty.  But  in  order  that  he  might  get  an  im- 
movable basis  it  was  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  deter- 
mine what  the  human  mind  can  know  and  what  lies 
beyond  its  capacities.  His  great  aim  in  the  *'  Kritik  "  is 
to  find  the  limits  of  human  reason.  Two  questions 
give  us  the  problems  which  the  book  wants  to  solve, 
and  it  solves  the  first  in  order  that  it  may  be  able  to 
solve  the  second  :  "  How  do  we  know  ?  What  can  we 
know  ?'*  In  his  answers  to  these  questions,  Kant  uses 
much  which  had  already  been  given  in  his  previous 
works,  especially  in  the  Inaugural  Dissertation. 

With  Locke  he  holds  that,  in  point  of  time,  all  our 
knowledge  begins  with  experience ;  but  this  fact  he 
does  not  regard  as  evidence  that  experience  is  the 
source  of  all  our  knowledge.  It  may  even  be  the  case 
that  what  is  called  experimental  knowledge  is  the  re- 
sult of  impressions  received  from  external  objects  and 
of  additions  made  by  our  own  minds.  There  is  know- 
ledge which  is  not  drawn  from  experience,  but  is  the 
product  of  the  mind  itself;  this  Kant  calls  a  priori 
knowledge.  The  knowledge  which  is  received  through 
the  senses  is  called  a  posteriori,  A  priori  knowledge  is 
independent  of  all  experience  ;  and  such  a  sentence  as 
this,  "  Every  change  must  have  a  cause,"  is  partly,  not 
purely,  a  priori,  because  change  is  a  conception  drawn 
only  from  experience. 

Observation  is  necessarily  hmited  ;  it  only  shows 
that  an  object  is  in  a  certain  state,  but  never  that  it 
must  be  so :  that  is,  it  deals  with  particulars,  never 
with  universals.  But  we  have  judgments  which  are 
both  necessary  and  universal,  such  as  the  axioms  of 
mathematics.     These  cannot  possibly  be  given  by  the 

T  2 


276 


THE   LIFE    OF   IMMANTJEL   KANT. 


senses ;  hence  all  necessary  and  universal  judgments 
are  d  pricri.  After  defining  a  priori  knowledge  and 
showing  that  it  is  found  even  in  ordinary  minds,  Kant 
discusses,  in  the  third  section  of  the  Introduction,  the 
proposition  :  Philosophy  needs  a  science  which  deter- 
mines  a  priori  the  possibility,  the  principles,  and  the 
limits  of  knowledge.  The"Kritik"is  of  course  intended 
to  be  this  science,  and  the  proposition  gives  its  aim. 

In  the   next    section  he  discusses    analytical   and 
synthetic  judgments,  a  subject  which  was  by  no  means 
new,  but  it  attained  a  prominence  and  importance  in  the 
"  Kritik  "  such  as  it  had  never  be^fore  received.   Hume, 
in  considering  the  same  subject,  had  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion  that  mathematical  judgment  s  are  analytical,  while 
Kant  held  that  they  are  mostly  synthetic.    The  distinc- 
tion  between  the  two  kinds  of  judgments  is  of  fun- 
damental importance  for  understanding  the  "Kritik." 
If  by  the  mere  analysis  of  a  subject  a  predicate  is  found 
to  be  contained  in  the  idea  of  a  subject,  though  in  a 
hidden  manner,  then  the  judgment  which  declares  that 
predicate  to  belong  to  the  subject,  is  analytic.    ^  The 
sentence,  '*  All  bodies  are  extended,"  is  an  analytic  judg- 
ment, for  the  conception  of  extension  is  contained  in 
that  of  body,  and  the  mere  analysis  of  the  conception 
of  body  gives  that  of  extension.   An  analytic  judgment, 
since  it  gives  in  the  predicate  only  what  is  already  con- 
tained in  the  subject,  does  not  in  the  least  enlarge  our 
knowledge,  but  makes  it  clearer.     If,  however,  I  predi- 
cate of  a  subject  something  not  already  contained  in  the 
very  conception  of  it,  then  I  give  a  synthetic  judgment; 
instead  of  merely  analyzing  my  conception  of  it,  I  add 
something  new  to  the  subject.     Kant  again  uses  the 
illustration  of  a  body,  and  says  that  the  judgment,  "  All 


ANALYTIC    AND    SYNTHETIC    JUDGMENTS. 


277 


bodies  are  heavy,"  is  synthetic,  since  the  conception  of 
weight  is  not  included  in  that  of  body.  Synthetic 
judgments,  therefore,  increase  our  knowledge.  All 
analytical  judgments  are  a  priori;  all  judgments  drawn 
from  experience  are  synthetic,  and  they  are,  of  course, 
a  posteriori.  But  there  are  also  synthetic  judgments 
which  are  a  priori;  thus  most  mathematical  judgments 
are  synthetic  and  a  priori.  There  can  be  no  question 
about  the  truthfulness  of  analytic  judgments,  nor 
respecting  synthetic  judgments  from  experience.  But 
there  are  ideas  and  principles  which  lie  wholly  beyond 
experience  and  are  of  the  most  momentous  importance, 
— such  as  God  and  immortality.  How  can  a  knowledge 
of  these  be  attained  ?  Not  by  analytic  judgments,  nor 
by  means  of  synthetic  judgments  drawn  from  ex- 
perience. In  all  the  sciences,  in  physics  and  meta- 
physics as  well  as  in  mathematics,  there  are  a  priori 
synthetic  judgments,  and  a  thorough  test  of  their 
validity  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Kant,  therefore, 
thinks  that  an  imperative  demand  is  made  on  reason 
to  answer  this  question.  How  are  synthetic  judgments 
a  priori  possible  ?  (^^')  He  regards  this  as  synonymous 
with  the  question.  How  is  knowledge  by  means  of 
pure  reason  possible?  or.  How  is  metaphysic  as  a 
science  possible  ? 

The  view  of  time  and  space  found  in  the  Inaugural 
Dissertation  is  also  given  in  the  ''  Kritik :"  they  are 
the  subjective  conditions  for  all  experience.  Whatever 
is  observed  by  the  senses  is  perceived  in  space,  or  in 
time,  or  in  both  ;  whatever  is  observed  in  our  minds  is 
perceived  in  time.  The  distinction  between  the  sense 
and  the  understanding,  found  in  the  same  dissertation, 
is    also    maintained    in    the   "Kritik,"    and   from    it 


TRANSCENDENTAL   ESTHETICS. 


279 


278 


THE   LTPE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


i„.portant  consequences  are  drawn.  The  -derstand.ng 
gives  the  forms  for  all  possible  expenence  ;    hey  ar^ 
fhe  conditions  for  all  knowledge,  winch  -^^hon^  t^em 
would  be  impossible.     However,  being  mere  forms  ot 
knowledge,  Ly  do  not  apply  to  ^^^S^^^^i:^ 
themselves,  but  only  to  phenomena,     ^h^  «  ^^^^^"j^^ 
oives  us  objects,  the  understanding  thinks  them.     In 
Lperience  therefore,  two  things  are  to  be  considered 
naLly.  an  object  presented  to  the  mind  through  the 
senses!   and   the  forms   of   knowledge   ^-^-^J^ 
understanding  ;  the  former  is  the  a  podenon,  the  latter 
the  a.riori  Jement.     Through  the  sense  I  receive  an 
i„,pressionof  heat;  but  when  m  connexion  with  this 
impression  I  think  of  substance,  cause,  force--as  the 
substance  of  which  the  heat  is  but  a  manifestation,  the 
cause  of  the  heat,  and  the  like^I  add  -mething  which 
I  did  not  get  through  the  senses,  somethmg  that  is 
the  product  of  my  understanding  and  is  afriori.      All 
knowledge  of  things  must  necessarily  have  these  two 
elements!  the  hfriori  and  the  afosterior^,  the  impression 
on  the  senses  and  the  thought  of  the  understanding. 
The  sense  cannot  think,  it  can  only  receive  impres- 
sions ;  the  understanding  thinks,  but  by  means  of  its 
thoughts  it  cannot  give  us  real  (existing)  objects  of 
knowledge,   but   only  forms  for  a  knowledge  of  the 
objects  £ven  by  the  senses.     One  of  the  first  sentences 
of  the  "  Kritik  "  also  contains  the  conclusion  of  the 
whole  investigation  :  that  an  object  can  in  no  wise  be 
mven  to  the  mind  except  through  the  senses.(    ) 

In  the  first  part  of  the  book  Kant  discusses  Trans- 
cendental  Esthetics,  by  which  he  designate^  the  ajprm^ 
science  of  all  the  principles  of  sensation.     He  discusses 
under  this  head,  space  and  time  as  the  ap-im-i  subjective 


\\ 


conditions    of  experience.     As  they  themselves    are 
a  priori,  so  whatever  gives  their  necessary  relations  is 
also  a  'priori  ;  and  as  these  relations  are  not  found  by 
analysis,  they  are  synthetic  judgments.    These  relations 
are  the  subjects  of  pure  mathematics.     Geometry,  for 
instance,  deals  with  figures,  hence  with  space,  and 
Kant  says,  "  Geometry  is  a  science  which  determines   . 
synthetically,  and  yet  a  priori,  the  properties  of  space." 
Pure  mathematics  is  both  a  priori  and  synthetic  m  its 
judgments.     Although  absolutely  certain  in  its  conclu- 
sions, it  gives  us  no  objects  of  knowledge,  but  only 
forms  or  conditions  for  a  knowledge  of  existing  things; 
it   deals  with   space   and  time,  and  thus   gives  the 
conditions   of  the  knowledge  obtained  through  the 

senses. 

As  space  and  time  are  the  conditions  for  all  experi- 
ence, so  there  are  certain  conditions  which  are  necessary 
in  order  that  we  may  think  objects  ;  and  just  as  space 
and  time  are  a  priori,  being  given  by  the  mind  itself,  so 
are  the  conditions  necessary  for  thinking  objects  also 
d  'priori,  being  the  product  of  the  understanding ;  they 
are  the  forms  which  the  understanding  gives  to  experi- 
ence.    It  is  not   by  means  of  these   forms  that  we 
represent  objects  to  ourselves,  but  by  means  of  them 
the  understanding  judges  of  the  objects  presented  to 
the  mind  through  the  senses.      If  we  eliminate  the 
content  of  judgments  and  consider  only  the  pure  form 
of  the  understanding  contained  in  them,  we  find  that 
all  the  functions  of  thought  in  the  judgments  may  be 
brought  under  four  heads,  each  being  again  subdivided 
into  three  parts.     Under  Quantity,  we  have  general, 
particular,  and  individual  judgments ;  under  Quality, 
affirmative,    negative,    Umitless    judgments;     under 


} 


k\ 


\ 


y 


i 


\ 


280  THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

Relation,  categorical,  hypothetica,l,  disjunctive  judg- 
xneuts;  under  Mode,  problematical  assertive,  apodictic 
judgments.     Kant  calls  these  the  logical  functions  of 
L   understanding.     Under  the  same  four  heads  he 
gives  the  pure  conceptions  of  the  understandmg    which 
L  «  Jiori  applicable  to  objects   of  Perception  m 
general."     These  are  called,  after  the  example  of  Ans- 
totle.  Categories.     They  are-under  Quantity,  unity, 
multiplicity,  totality  ;  under  Quality,  reality,  negation, 
limitation ;   under  Relation,  substance  and  accident, 
cause  and  effect,  reciprocity ;  (-)  under  Mode    pos- 
sibility  and  impossibility,  existence  and  non-existence, 
necessity  and  accident.    Kant  regarded  these  categories 
as  complete  and  exhaustive,  as  a  general  class^fie^^i^^ 
of  all  possible  conceptions  of  the  understandmg  and 
he  looked    with  the   greatest   satisfaction    on  their 
discovery,  viewing  his  work  in  this  respect  as  completing 
the    imperfect,  table    of    the.  categories    given    by 

^  Klnt'held  aiat  it  is  by  means  of  these  categories 
that  the  understanding  connects  all  the  impressions 
received  through  the  senses.     These  -^^-^^'^^^^l 
separate,  each  standing  alone,  and  sensation,  which 
Kant  views  as  the  mere  receptivity  of  the  mmd    has 
no  means  of  connecting  them  ;  but  the  understandmg. 
which  he    regards   as  the   spontaneity   of  the   mind, 
connects  them.     Without  this  connectmg  power  there 
could  be  no  judgments.     By  means  of  the  categories, 
which  are  ifviori^^W  the  impressions  are  systematized, 
-are  bound  together  and  classified ;  the  perceptions  are 
made  conceptions,  the  impressions  become  thoughts 
the  individual  is  brought  into  relation  with  the  general 
and  the  predicate  is  connected  with  its  subject.     1  hat 


THE   CATEGORIES. 


281 


il 


\ 


we  think  by  means  of  these    categories,  is  not  the 
result  of  pecuhar  experience,  nor  of  any  experience ; 
it  is  a  necessity  inherent  in  the  understandmg.     As 
no  number  of  impressions  in  sensation  can  give  the 
conception  of  causality,   so  no  number  of  ^tem  can 
deprive  the  mind  of  this  conception.      This  and  all 
the   other  categories   of  the  understanding  are  the 
original  moulds  in  the  mind ;  the  impressions  received 
through  the  senses  are  cast  into  these  moulds,  and 
the  forms  thus  given  to  them  constitute  our  thoughts 
of  things.     Our  knowledge  of  objects  is.  accordingly. 
a  union  of  what  is  given  through  the  senses  and  ot 
what  is  added  thereto  by  the  understandmg. 

The  categories  are  applicable  only  to  phenomena, 
not  to  objects  not  given  in  sensation.     « /PPl^e^  *« 
something  not  given  in  experience,  as  God,  freedom, 
immortahty.   the    mind   simply   reasons   without    an 
object.     It  may  have  conceptions  which  are  perfectly 
consistent;    but   that   is   no   evidence   that   any  real 
existence  corresponds  with  them.     By  means  of  its 
spontaneous  activity  the  mind  cannot    discover   an 
obiect  existing  outside  of  the  mind.     Kant  s  conclusion 
on  this  subject  is :  «  Sensation,  as  subjected  to  the 
understanding,  and  as  the  object  to  which  the  under- 
standing appHes  all  its  powers,  is  the  source  of  all 
real  knowledge."     But  while  the  understandmg  thus 
deals  with  real  knowledge  only  when  it  limits  itselt  to 
the  objects  furnished  by  sensation,  it,  on  the  other 
hand,  prescribes  the  laws  according  to  which  we  obtain 
a  knowledge  of  objects.     In  his  Preface  to  the  second 
edition  of  the  «  Kritik,"  Kant  says,  "  Until  now  it  was 
thought  that  all  our  cognition  must  adapt  itself  to  the 
objects ;  but.  under  this  supposition,  all  attempts  to 


\ 


V 


; 


^> 


\: 


k 

I 

t    , 


282 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


determine  anything  respecting  them,  by  means  of  con- 
ceptions through  which  our  knowledge  would  be 
enlarged,  proved  to  be  a  failure.  Let  it,  therefore,  be 
tried  whether  we  shall  not  get  along  better  with  the 
problems  of  metaphysics,  if  we  suppose  that  the 
objects  must  adapt  themselves  to  our  cognition,  a 
supposition  which  harmonizes  better  with  the  demanded 
possibility  of  an  a  priori  cognition  of  the  same,  which 
cognition  is  to  determine  something  respecting  the 
objects  before  they  are  presented  to  us.  This  is 
somewhat  similar  to  the  first  thought  of  Copernicus, 
who,  when  he  found  that  there  was  no  satisfactory 
explanation  of  the  movement  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
if  he  took  it  for  granted  that  the  whole  heavenly  host 
revolved  around  the  observer,  attempted  to  discover 
whether  he  would  not  be  more  successful  if  the  observer 
was  supposed  to  turn,  while  the  stars  remained  at 
rest."  Kant  made  a  revolution  in  metaphysics  similar 
to  that  made  by  Copernicus  in  astronomy  :  he  made 
the  objects  of  knowledge  conform  to  the  laws  of  the 
mind,  instead  of  obliging  the  mind  to  draw  its  laws 
from  the  objects. 

While  by  means  of  sensation  we  receive  impressions 
from  objects,  or  have  perceptions;  and  while  the 
understanding  furnishes  the  conditions  for  connecting 
the  perceptions,  thus  giving  us  thoughts  or  conceptions; 
Kant  ascribes  to  the  imagination  the  office  of  furnishing 
a  picture  or  schema  for  a  conception.  But  in  the 
*'Kritik"  the  function  of  the  reason  is  of  special 
importance.  It  is  the  faculty  for  ideas,  using  the  word 
"  idea  "  in  the  Platonic  sense.  Thus  we  have  an  idea  of 
freedom,  of  virtue,  of  government,  with  which  nothing 
known  to  us  corresponds.     The  ideas  Sive  a  priori^  being 


It 


IDEALISM. 


283 


the  direct  product  of  the  reason ;  they  are  perfect  types 
or  archetypes ;  they  are  great  principles,  which  are 
not  fictions,  but  necessary  products  of  the  reason ;  and 
they  transcend  all  experience,  in  which  no  object  can 
be  given  which  is  an  adequate  representation  or  em- 
bodiment of  the  idea.     This,  of  course,  does  not  imply 
that  there  is  no  such  an  object,  and  Kant  guardedly 
says,  "We   have   no   knowledge   of   an   object   which 
corresponds  with  the  idea  ;"  and  he  repeatedly  warns 
against  the  conclusion  that  the  limit  of  our  knowledge 
is  also  the  hmit  of  existence.     The  principles  given  m 
the  reason  apply  directly  to  the  laws  of  the  under- 
standing,   but    not    to    the     phenomena    given    m 

experience. 

The  charge  of  Idealism  has  repeatedly  been  made 
against  Kant's  philosophy.     This  has  been  based  on 
his  view  of  time  and  space  as  subjective  conditions  of 
knowledge,  on  his  doctrine  that  knowledge  must  con- 
form to  the  laws  given  a  priori  by  the  understanding, 
and  to  his  conclusion  that  we  can  get  only  impressions 
from  things,  of  which  we  can  know  nothing  but  their 
phenomena.     According  to  the  «  Kritik,"  we  cannot 
possibly  know  what  is  back  of  the  phenomena,  namely, 
the  thing  per  se  (das  Ding  an  sich).     Long  before 
Fichte  developed  his  Idealism  from  Kantian  principles, 
there  were  persons   who  interpreted  these  views  as 
idealistic.     Kant,  however,  promptly  met  this  charge  in 
his  "  Prolegomena."     There  he  defines  Idealism  as  the 
system  which   asserts   that  there    are   only  thinking 
beings,  and  that  all  other  things  which  we  imagine  we 
perceive,  are  only  appearances  in  the  thinking  being, 
with  which  nothing  external  to  the  mind  corresponds. 
In  opposition  to  this  view,  Kant  says,  "  I,  however,  say, 


c< 


\ 


mtm 


284 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


things  which  are  objects  outside  of  us  are  given  to  our 
senses ;  of  what  they  are  in  themselves  we,  however, 
know  nothing,  but  we  know  only  their  appearances, 
that  is,  the  representations  which  they  produce  in  us  by 
affecting  our  senses.  Therefore  I,  of  course,  admit 
that  there  are  bodies  external  to  us,  that  is,  things 
respecting  which  it  is  altogether  unknown  to  us  what 
they  are  in  themselves,  which  we  know  only  by  means 
of  the  representations  of  them  produced  by  their 
influence  on  our  senses,  and  to  which  we  give  the  name 
'  body,'  a  word  which  therefore  signifies  for  us  only  the 
representation  of  an  unknown  but,  nevertheless,  real 
object.  Can  this  be  called  Idealism  ?  It  is,  in  fact, 
the  very  opposite."  Kant,  however,  admits  that  his 
philosophy  is  IdeaHsm  in  another  sense,  namely,  in  that 
it  teaches  that  our  minds  deal  only  with  phenomena, 
with  the  representations  of  things,  but  never  with 
things  themselves.  If  the  theory  which  changes  real 
things  into  mere  representations  is  an  objectionable 
Idealism,  what  shall  we,  on  the  other  hand,  call  that 
theory  which  changes  mere  representations  into  things 
themselves  ?  Kant's  answer  is,  ''  I  think  it  might  be 
called  a  dreaming  Idealism,  in  distinction  from  the 
former,  which  might  be  called  the  fanatical  one,  both 
of  which  I  wanted  to  avoid  by  means  of  my  so-called 
Transcendental,  or  better.  Critical  Idealism." 

Kant  therefore  does  not  deny  the  existence  of  a 
world  outside  of  us ;  but  as  in  a  mirror  we  see  only 
reflections  of  ourselves,  and  not  ourselves ;  so  in  our 
minds  we  have  only  reflections  of  objects,  not  the 
objects  themselves.  That  we  have  no  power  of  know- 
ing what  things  are  in  themselves,  is  one  of  the  clearest 
results  of  the  "  Kritik,"  and  is  stated  with  a  frequency 


'<{ 


LIMITS    OF   THOUGHT. 


28^ 


I 


and  with  an  emphasis  which  leave  no  room  for  doubt 
as  to  his  meaning.  Experience  is  the  absolute  limit 
of  knowledge,  and  in  his  Preface  to  the  second  edition 
of  the  "  Kritik  "  he  says  that  the  first  use  of  the  book 
is  to  teach  us  never  to  venture  beyond  the  limits  of 
experience  with  our  speculative  reason,  since  all  that 
lies  beyond  these  limits  also  lies  beyond  the  province 
of  reason.  But  since  in  experience  we  have  only 
phenomena  as  objects  of  knowledge,  it  is  evident 
that  beyond  these  we  can  know  nothing  of  things. 

Kant  does  not  merely  destroy  all  hope  of  obtaining 
a  knowledge  of  things  per  se,  he  also  destroys  all 
hope  of  gaining,  by  means  of  the  speculative  reason, 
any  knowledge  of  God,  the  soul,  freedom,  and  immor- 
tality. We  have  already  seen  the  intimate  union  of 
the  speculative  and  the  practical  interests  in  Kant, 
and  that  he  gave  to  the  latter  the  preference.  It  was 
a  practical  interest  which  gave  the  impulse  to  his  pro- 
found speculations,  and  he  says  in  the  "  Kritik,"  | 
"The  ideas  of  God,  freedom,  and  immortality,  are 
the  proper  objects  for  the  investigation  of  metaphysics. 
Everything  else  with  which  this  science  is  occupied  \ 
serves  only  as  means  for  the  attainment  of  these  ideas 
and  a  knowledge  of  their  objective  reality."  But  the 
"  Kritik,"  instead  of  establishing  the  reahty  of  these 
objects  by  means  of  speculation,  shows  that  the 
speculative  reason  can  learn  nothing  respecting  them. 

In  discussing  the  sentence,  "  I  think,"  Kant  shows 
that  all  it  implies  or  teaches  is  that  I  exist  thinking ; 
it  does  not  teach  us  what  the  Ego  in  itself  is.  We 
know  absolutely  nothing  respecting  the  nature  of  the 
soul ;  and  if  the  materialistic  explanation  is  unsatis- 
factory, so  is  the  spiritualistic.     But  if  the  nature  of 


i^.. 


28^286 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


PROOFS    OF   THE    EXISTENCE    OF   GOD. 


287 


I 


i 


the  soul  is  a  mystery  to  us,  how  can  we  know  any- 
thing respecting  its  immortality  ?  It  cannot  be  proved 
that  the  soul  is  a  simple  substance,  and  that,  con- 
sequently, it  cannot  be  disintegrated,  and  cannot 
decrease  or  vanish  altogether,  but  must  exist  for  ever. 
Theoretical  knowledge,  according  to  Kant,  is  that 
which  knows  that  a  thing  is ;  practical  knowledge,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  that  which  represents  what  a  thing 
ought  to  be.  By  means  of  the  theoretical  use  of  reason 
we  learn  a  priori  that  something  is;  through  its 
practical  use  we  learn  a  priori  what  ought  to  be  done. 
Theoretical  knowledge  is  speculative  whenever  its 
object  is  such  that  it  cannot  be  given  in  experience,  or 
whenever  it  deals  with  mere  conceptions  of  such  an 
object.  It  is  the  very  opposite  of  a  knowledge  of 
nature,  which  deals  with  objects  given  in  experience, 
or  with  their  predicates.  Kant  asserts  that  the  purely 
speculative  use  of  reason  in  theology  is  utterly  worth- 
less, and  that  in  an  a  priori  way  the  existence  of  God 
cannot  be  proved.  And  after  repeatedly  showing 
that  we  cannot  know  substances,  but  only  phenomena 
and  their  laws,  he  proceeds  to  subject  the  speculative 
proofs  of  God's  existence  to  searching  criticism.  These 
are  of  three  kinds,  ontological,  cosmological,  and 
physico-theological.  Under  whatever  form  the  onto- 
logical argument  may  be  presented,  the  inference  that 
God  exists  is  always  drawn  from  the  very  idea  of  God; 
but  in  no  case  can  a  mere  idea  demonstrate  the 
existence  of  an  object  corresponding  with  the  idea. 
The  reason  may  find  it  necessary  to  adopt  such  an 
idea  for  the  explanation  of  things ;  this,  however,  is  a 
mere  hypothesis.  To  predicate  the  real  existence  of 
a  corresponding  object,  is  a  synthetic  judgment,  which 


would  be  vaUd  only  if  the  object  were  given  m  ex- 
perience.  The  idea  of  God  may  be  perfect ;  but,  Kant 
says,  the  conception  of  a  hundred  thalers  may  also  be 
perfect,  and  yet  the  mere  conception  of  so  much 
money  does  not  make  a  man  any  richer,  neither  does 
the  mere  idea  of  God  in  the  least  enlarge  our  know- 
ledge  of  what  really  exists. 

The  cosmological  proof  differs  from  the  ontological 
in  this  respect,  that  the  latter  is  purely  speculative, 
while   the   former  begins   with   experience   but   ends 
speculatively.      The    cosmological    argument   is    that 
every  change  must   have   a  cause;    if   now  we  con- 
tinually proceed  from  effect  to  cause,  we  shall  have  an 
endless    series   of  the    conditioned.      From  the  con- 
ditioned the  inference  is  drawn  that  there  must  be  an 
unconditioned   which  conditions   everything   else,  an 
uncaused  cause  of  all  that  is  caused.     Yet  even  if  it 
is  admitted  that  the  mind  is  obliged  to  postulate  an 
ultimate    cause    and  an  unconditioned  something  for 
the  explanation  of  things,  that  is  no  proof  of  the  real 
existence  of  such  a  cause.    The  argument  is  really  onto- 
logical, since  from  the  mere  idea  the  necessary  objective 
reality  is  inferred.     The  idea  of  a  first  cause  is  one  to 
which  thought  is  driven  as  a  refuge ;  but  whether  it  is 
a  real  or  an  imaginary  necessity  for  our  thoughts,  it 
does  not  demonstrate  the  existence  of  such  a  cause. 

The  physico-theological  proof  is  the  argument  from 
design.  The  beauty  and  order  in  nature,  the  work- 
ing or  tendency  towards  certain  ends,  are  regarded  as 
evidence  that  there  must  have  been  an  inteUigent 
designer,  just  as  from  the  existence  of  a  house  we 
infer  that  it  had  an  architect.  Kant,  however,  says 
that  in  order  to  prove  that  nature  had  such  a  designer, 


■t  '\ 


288 


THE   LIFE   OF  IMMANUIIL  KANT, 


\ 


it  would   be  necessary   to  prove  that   things  per  se 
(substances,  of  which  we  know  nothing)  cannot  work 
so  beautifully  and  harmoniously,  unless  they  are  the 
product  of  the  highest  wisdom.     As  the  cosmological 
argument  was  seen  to  rest  on  the  ontological,  so  Kant 
shows  that  the  physico-theological  rests  on  both  the 
cosmological  and  the  ontological.     According  to  the 
physico-theological  argument,  the  inference  is  drawn 
from  the  beauty  and  order  of  the  universe  that  they  must 
have  an  adequate  cause.     This  cause  is  supposed  to  be 
a  Being  who  possesses  all  perfections.     By  analyzing 
the  argument,  however,  we  find  that  it  amounts  to  this : 
the  beauty  and  order  seen  in  nature  are  effects ;  these 
effects  have  an  adequate  first  cause  which  is  perfect 
and     unconditioned     (cosmological    argument);   and 
because  I  am  obliged  to  conceive  such  a  cause  in  order 
to  explain  phenomena,  therefore  an  object  correspond- 
mg  with  this  idea  of  a  first  cause  also  exists  (onto- 
logical  argument).     As   both  the  ontological  and  the 
cosmological  proof  have  been  found  unsatisfactory,  of 
course  the  physico-theological  one,  which  rests  on  them, 
IS  also  invalid.     But  even  if  it  could  be  proved  that 
the  substances,  the  things  per  se,  cannot  of  themselves 
work  beautifully   and   harmoniously,  that  would  not 
prove  the  existence  of  an  all-wise  and  almighty  Being. 
It  would  only  prove  that  there  is  an  Architect  of  the' 
universe,  whose  power  is  limited  by  the  nature  of  the 
material  he  uses,   but  it  would  not  demonstrate  the 
existence  of  a  Creator  to  whom  everything  is  subject. 
In  order  to  prove  that  such  a  Creator  exists,  it  would 
be  necessary  to   demonstrate  that   matter    itself  is 
conditioned. 

Already  in  discussing  the  antinomies  of  pure  reason, 


\ 


LIMITS  OF  THE   SPECOLATIVB   REASON, 


289 


Kant  had  come  to  a  conclusion  similar  to  that  attained 
by  testing  the  arguments  for  God's  existence.     On  the 
following  points,  he  says,  we  can  determine  nothmg 
speculatively,  "  Whether  the  world  had  a  beginning 
and   is   limited    in    space ;    whether    anywhere,   and 
perhaps  in  my  thinking  self,  there  is  an  indivisible 
and    indestructible    unity,   or  nothing  but   what  is 
divisible  and  destructible ;  whether  I  am  free  m  my 
actions,  or,  like  other  beings,  am  controUed  by  nature 
and  destiny ;  finally,  whether  there  is  a  highest  cause 
of  the  world,  or  whether  the  things  in  nature,  and 
their  order,  are  the  ultimate  objects  with  which  our 
contemplations  must  stop." 

After  his  demonstration  that  speculatively  we  can- 
not demonstrate  the  existence  of  God,  Kant  shows 
that  it  is  equally  impossible  to  prove  that  there  is  no 
God  «  The  same  arguments  which  prove  the  impo- 
tence  of  the  human  reason  with  respect  to  the  esta- 
blishment  of  the  existence  of  the  highest  Being,  also 
suffice  to  prove  the  insufficiency  of  all  assertions 
against  this  existence.  For  whence  will  one,  by  means 
of  pure  speculative  reason,  obtain  the  knowledge  that 
there  is  not  a  highest  Being  as  the  source    of  all 

things?"  ,  i-       1 

While  in  the  dogmatic  systems  there  are  rational 
psychology,  rational  cosmology,  and  rational  theology, 
which  presuppose  that  the  soul,  the  cosmos,  and  God, 
are  not  mere  ideas,  but  real  objects  which  can  be 
treated  as  subjects  of  rational  knowledge,  Kant  shows 
that  they  are  mere  ideas  of  the  reason,  and  that  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  speculatively  whether  a  real 
object  corresponds  with  them.  No  corresponding 
object   being    given   in    experience,   the    speculative 


\ 


288 


THE    LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


^ 


iv     i- 


I'  * 


/ 


( 


it  would  be  necessary  to  prove  that   things  per  se 
(substances,  of  which  we  know  nothing)  cannot  work 
so  beautifully  and  harmoniously,  unless  they  are  the 
product  of  the  highest  wisdom.  *  As  the  cosmological 
argument  was  seen  to  rest  on  the  ontological,  so  Kant 
shows  that  the  physico-theological  rests  on  both  the 
cosmological  and  the  ontological.     According  to  the 
physico-theological  argument,  the  inference  is  drawn 
from  the  beautyand  order  of  the  universe  that  they  must 
have  an  adequate  cause.     This  cause  is  supposed  to  be 
a  Bemg  who  possesses  all  perfections.     By  analyzing 
the  argument,  however,  we  find  that  it  amounts  to  this  : 
the  beauty  and  order  seen  in  nature  are  efPects ;  these 
effects  have  an  adequate  first  cause  which  is  perfect 
and     unconditioned     (cosmological    argument);    and 
because  I  am  obHged  to  conceive  such  a  cause  i£  order 
to  explain  phenomena,  therefore  an  object  correspond - 
mg  wath  this  idea  of  a  first  cause  also  exists  (onto- 
logical argument).     As   both  the  ontological  and  the 
cosmological  proof  have  been  found  unsatisfactory,  of 
course  the  physico-theological  one,  which  rests  on  them, 
IS  also  invalid.     But  even  if  it  could  be  proved  that 
the  substances,  the  things  per  se,  cannot  of  themselves 
work  beautifuUy  and  harmoniously,  that  would  not 
prove  the  existence  of  an  all-wise  and  almighty  Being 
It  would  only  prove  that  there  is  an  Architect  of  the 
universe,  whose  power  is  limited  by  the  nature  of  the 
material  he  uses,   but  it  would  not  demonstrate  the 
existence  of  a  Creator  to  whom  everything  is  subject 
In  order  to  prove  that  such  a  Creator  exists,  it  would 
be  necessary  to    demonstrate  that   matter    itself  is 
conditioned. 

Already  in  discussing  the  antinomies  of  pure  reason, 


I  ' 


LIMITS    OF   THE    SPECULATIVE    REASON. 


289 


Kant  had  come  to  a  conclusion  similar  to  that  attained 
by  testing  the  arguments  for  God's  existence.  On  the 
following  points,  he  says,  we  can  determine  nothing 
speculatively,  ''Whether  the  world  had  a  beginning 
and  is  limited  in  space ;  whether  anywhere,  and 
perhaps  in  my  thinking  self,  there  is  an  indivisible 
and  indestructible  unity,  or  nothing  but  what  is 
divisible  and  destructible ;  whether  I  am  free  in  my 
actions,  or,  like  other  beings,  am  controlled  by  nature 
and  destiny ;  finally,  whether  there  is  a  highest  cause 
of  the  world,  or  whether  the  things  in  nature,  and 
their  order,  are  the  ultimate  objects  with  which  our 
contemplations  must  stop." 

After  his  demonstration  that  speculatively  we  can- 
not demonstrate  the  existence  of  God,  Kant  shows 
that  it  is  equally  impossible  to  prove  that  there  is  no 
God.  "  The  same  arguments  which  prove  the  impo- 
tence of  the  human  reason  with  respect  to  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  existence  of  the  highest  Being,  also 
suffice  to  prove  the  insufficiency  of  all  assertions 
against  this  existence.  For  whence  will  one,  by  means 
of  pure  speculative  reason,  obtain  the  knowledge  that 
there  is  not  a  highest  Being  as  the  source  of  all 
things  ?  " 

While  in  the  dogmatic  systems  there  are  rational 
psychology,  rational  cosmology,  and  rational  theology, 
which  presuppose  that  the  soul,  the  cosmos,  and  God, 
are  not  mere  ideas,  but  real  objects  which  can  be 
treated  as  subjects  of  rational  knowledge,  Kant  shows 
that  they  are  mere  ideas  of  the  reason,  and  that  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  speculatively  whether  a  real 
object  corresponds  with  them.  No  corresponding 
object    being    given   in    experience,    the    speculative 


290 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


reason  must  treat  them  as  mere  ideas,  and  a  rational 
science  of  psychology,  cosmology,  and  theology,  is 
impossible. 

This  conclusion  was  by  no  means  new.  The  same 
result  was  attained  by  Hume;  and  Thomasius  and 
others  had  declared  that  the  objects  of  religion  are 
matters  of  faith  and  cannot  be  demonstrated.  But 
in  the  metaphysics  of  the  day  they  were  generally 
treated  as  either  self-evident  or  demonstrable,  or  both, 
and  on  this  supposition  elaborate  speculative  systems 
were  built.  Kant  not  only  proved  that,  as  far  as 
speculative  knowledge  is  concerned,  these  systems 
are  baseless  fabrications,  but  he  proved  it  so  rigor- 
ously, with  such  mathematical  definiteness  and  con- 
clusiveness, and  so  often,  that,  if  his  premises  are 
admitted,  there  is  no  escape  from  the  conviction  that 
the  matter  is  finally  settled.  His  thorough  criticism 
destroyed  the  dogmatism  of  metaphysicians  on  these 
subjects. 

If  now  metaphysic  deals  with  God,  freedom,  and 
immortality,  then  it  is  evident  from  the  "  Kritik  "  that 
this  science  must  be  a  failure,  since  this  work  proves 
that,  speculatively,  we  can  know  nothing  about  them. 
Every  argument  in  favour  of  their  existence  is  met 
by  an  equally  valid  one  against  it.  We  can  know 
nothing  except  mathematics  and  what  is  given  in 
experience;  that  is,  we  can  know  phenomena  and 
their  laws,  but  besides  and  behind  them  absolutely 
nothing.  In  the  "  Prolegomena  "  the  following  is  given 
as  the  result  of  the  whole  "  Kritik  :" — "  That  our  rea- 
son, by  means  of  all  its  principles,  never  teaches  us  any- 
thing a  priori  except  objects  of  possible  experience, 
and  even  of  these  nothing  except  what  can  be  known 


POSTULATES    OF    THE    PRACTICAL    REASON. 


291 


m  experience."  Since  the  substance  is  altogether 
beyond  the  reach  of  our  minds,  our  knowledge  is 
doomed  to  move  in  a  ^orld  of  mere  appearances. 

The  tendency  of  the  "  Kritik  "  is  to  humble  man 
greatly,  to  check  wild  speculations  in  metaphysics,  and 
to  concentrate  the  attention  of  philosophers   on  the 
things  which  are  within  the  reach  of  knowledge.     If 
the  supersensible    lies  beyond   the  Hmits  of  reason, 
then    more  attention  will,  naturally,  be  paid  to  the 
positive  sciences.     There  is  no  doubt  that,  instead  of 
promoting  ideahsm  or  even  metaphysics,  the  "  Kritik  " 
is    rather   calculated    to   promote   the    study   of   the 
natural  sciences  and  mathematics,  and  that  the  Critical 
Philosophy,  in  this  respect,  ends  where  Bacon  began. 
However,  what  Kant  takes  with  one  hand  he  gives 
back  again  with  the  other;    for  what  he  denies   to 
the  speculative   reason,  he  vindicates    as   the  sphere 
of  the  practical  reason.     While,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
"  Kritik  "  is  negative  and  destructive  in  its  results,  it  is, 
on  the  other,  positive  and  constructive.     Kant  believes 
it  necessary  for  man   to    elevate    himself   above  the 
sensible,  and  he  thinks  that  something  must  neces- 
sarily be  postulated  as  absolute  and  infinite,  and  as  the 
cause  of  all   finite  things.      We    cannot  understand 
what  or  how  this  is  ;  therefore  it  is  not  an  object  of 
science,  and  it  is  not,   strictly  speaking,  knowledge ; 
but  it  is  a  necessary,  though  inexplicable,  presupposi- 
tion.     Where   the    speculative   reason    is   impotent, 
there  the  practical  reason  prescribes  laws  which  are 
absolute,  and  these  are  based  on  the  supposition  of 
the   existence   of  God   and   freedom.     The   practical 
reason  does  not,  indeed,  give  any  speculative  know- 
ledge, nor  knowledge  which  can  be  used  speculatively ; 

u  2 


^ 


292 


THE    LIFE   OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


its  domain  is  purely  practical ;  nevertheless,  its  postu- 
lates are  such  as  to  give  a  basis  on  which  moral  faith 
can  rest ;  and  for  all  practical  purposes  this  basis  is 

absolute. 

Kant  does  not  regard  it  as  a  serious  loss  that  it  has 
been  proved  that  by  means  of  speculation  we  can 
know  nothing  of  God  and  freedom  and  immortality. 
On  ordinary  minds  the  speculative  arguments  never 
had  any  influence.  There  are  still  arguments  left 
which  can  be  used  and  which  give  us  moral  certainty. 
Reason  finds  it  necessary  to  accept  the  law  that  in 
animals  no  organ,  no  power,  no  impulse  is  in  vam, 
but  that  everything  is  perfectly  adapted  to  some  pur- 
pose. Can  it  be  that  man  is  the  only  exception  to 
this  law  ?  In  him  we  find  talents,  impulses,  and  par- 
ticularly a  conscience,  which  are  not  merely  adapted 
to  use  in  this  hfe,  but  which  often  lead  a  man  to  deny 
himself  here  with  a  view  of  fitting  himself  the  better 
to  become  a  citizen  of  another  world  ;  in  other  words, 
Kant  recognizes  in  man  faculties  which  do  not  have 
full  scope  for  exercise  here,  which  are  adapted  to 
another  sphere,  and  which  point  to  something  beyond 
this  life.  If  means  are  adapted  to  ends,  as  we  are 
firmly  convinced  that  they  must  be,  then  these  powers 
r^ithin  us,  and  the  consciousness  of  a  certain  limit- 
lessness  of  the  possible  increase  of  our  knowledge,  and 
the  impulse  to  seek  this  increase,  remain  as  incontro- 
vertible arguments  in  favour  of  immortality,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  we  can  neither  comprehend  its  nature, 
nor   give   a   speculative   deinonstration   that   we   are 

immortal. 

Kant  declares  that  we  do  not  need  a  knowledge  of 
the  existence  of  God,  of  freedom,  and  of  immortality  ; 


FAITH    IN   GOD,    FREEDOM,    IMMORTALITY. 


293 


yet  they  are  urged  on  us  by  our  reason,  which  has  a 
presentiment  of  them  and  a  deep  interest  in  them,  and 
which  enters  on  a  course  of  speculation  to  discover 
them,   though   they   constantly   flee    from   it.      This 
proves  that   reason  is  constituted  with  reference  to 
these  objects,  and  they  are  the  problems  of  what  may 
be  called  pure  philosophy.     Hence  if  the  speculative 
reason  cannot  discover  them,  they  must  belong  to  the 
province   of   the  practical   reason.     As  our  faculties 
point  to  immortahty,  so  all  moral  laws  point  to  free- 
dom  and  to  God.     If  there  is  no  freedom,  then  there 
is  no  morahty ;  if  there  is  no  God,  then  virtue,  which 
deserves  a  happiness  which  it  does  not  receive  here, 
is  deceived,  since  there  will  be  no  one  to  give  it,  in 
another  life,  the  happiness  which  it  merits.    Eepeatedly 
and   emphatically,    Kant  shows  that,  practically,  we 
must  believe  in  God,  freedom,  and  the  immortality  of 
the    soul,   and   that  if   these   are    fictions,   then  our 
nature  is   so   constituted  as    to    deceive    us.     He  is 
anxious  to  check  empiricism,  as  well  as  speculationj 
in  their  denial  of  the  basis  of  religion  and  morality  ; 
and  he  shows  that  they  become  dogmatic  and  trans- 
cend  the  hmits    of  reason  whenever  they  deny  the 
existence    of    objects    beyond    experience.       And    so 
anxious  is  he  to  secure  a  place  for  morality  and  faith, 
that  he  says,  in  the  Preface  to  the  second  edition  of 
the  ''  Kritik,"  "  I  was  obliged  to  destroy  knowledge, 
in   order   to  make   room   for  faith."     And  while  he 
destroys  the  useless  speculations  which  try  to  prove 
the  existence  of  objects  not  given  in  experience,  he 
also  expects   the   "  Kritik "  to  destroy  the  roots  of 
materialism,  fatalism,  atheism,  pernicious  scepticism, 
fa  naticism,  superstition,  and  idealism. 


294 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


Although  Kant's  moral  and  religious  views  are  con- 
sidered in  the  next  chapter,  it  is  necessary  to   give 
their  basis  in  the  "  Kritik  "  more  fully  than  is  done 
in  the  preceding  general  outline.     He  thinks  that  in 
oiving  to  our  reason  the  character  it  possesses,  the 
aim  was  moral,  not  speculative.     The  three  problems 
of  God,  of  freedom,  and   of  immortality,  have  this 
pecuHar  significance,  that  they  show  us  what  is  to  he 
done  if  the  will  is  free,  if  there  is  a  God,  and  if  the 
soul  is  immortal.     That  the  will  is  free,  is  a  matter  of 
experience;  it   may,   consequently,  without  anything 
further,  be  regarded   as    settled.  {''')     The  problems 
which  therefore  remain  are  :  ''  Is  there  a  God  ?     Is 
\       there  a  future  life  ?  "    . 

The  three  questions  on  which  the  interest  of  the 
speculative  as  well  as  the  practical  reason  is  con- 
centrated are  the  following  :  "  What  can  I  know  ? 
What  ought  I  to  do?  What  may  I  hope?"  The 
first  is  purely  speculative,  and  Kant  thinks  that  he 
has  exhausted  all  possible  answers  to  this  question. 
The  second  is  purely  moral,  and  may  belong  to  pure 
reason ;  but  as  it  is  not  transcendental,  it  does  not 
belong  to  the  ''  Kritik."  The  third  question  may  be 
put  in  this  form,  "  If  I  do  what  I  ought,  what  may 
I  hope  ?  "  It  is  practical  since  it  deals  with  conduct, 
and  theoretical  since  it  concludes  that  something 
exists  because  certain  things  ought  to  be  done,  some- 
thino"  which  determines  the  ultimate  aim  of  conduct. 
This  is  therefore  a  question  which  can  properly  be 
considered  in  the  '*  Kritik." 

There  are  purely  moral  laws  which  determine 
a  priori  what  ought  to  be  done ;  and  their  commands 
are  absolute,  without  regard  to  empirical  motives,  such 


MORALETY    AND    HAPPINESS. 


295 


as  happiness.  The  moral  judgment  of  every  person 
acknowledges  this  imperative.  There  must  there- 
fore be  possible  a  system  of  what  ought  to  be  done, 
and  the  principles  of  the  pure  reason  which  determine 
this  have  an  objective  reality  in  their  practical  and 
moral  application.  The  answer  to  the  question, 
^' What  ought  I  to  do  ?  "  is  this,  "  Do  that  which  will 
make  you  worthy  of  being  happy."  The  question  then 
arises,  ''  If  by  means  of  my  conduct  I  am  made 
worthy  of  being  happy,  shall  I  attain  the  happiness 
which  I  deserve?'  In  the  exercise  of  its  theoretical  as 
well  as  practical  functions,  reason  presupposes  that 
every  one  has  a  right  to  expect  that  degree  of  happi- 
ness of  which  he  has  made  himself  worthy  by  his  con- 
duct. Therefore  the  ideas  of  morality  and  happiness 
are  inseparably  connected  in  pure  reason.  But  after 
we  have  done  the  utmost  to  make  ourselves  worthy  of 
happiness,  we  cannot  expect  this  happiness  itself  to 
result  from  the  nature  of  things,  nor  from  the  conduct 
itself;  how  then  can  we  account  for  this  ceaseless 
striving  to  become  worthy  of  happiness  ?  If  there  is 
nothing  but  nature,  then  reason  cannot  answer  this 
question.  This  harmony  between  morality  and  happi- 
ness can  be  hoped  for  only  if  a  highest  reason,  which 
rules  according  to  moral  law,  is  taken  as  the  basis  of 
nature.  "  I  call  the  idea  of  such  an  intelligence,  in 
which  the  morally  perfect  will  is  connected  with  the 
greatest  happiness,  and  which  is  the  source  of  all 
happiness  in  the  world,  so  far  as  it  is  exactly  propor- 
tioned to  morality  (the  worthiness  of  being  happy), 
the  ideal  of  the  highest  good.^^  It  is  only  in  this  ideal 
that  the  pure  reason  can  find  the  practically  necessary 
union   between   morality  and  happiness.      Now  it  is 


296 


THE   LIFE   OP   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


evident  that  in  this  world  happiness  is  not  propor- 
tioned to  worthiness  ;  therefore  we  must  believe  in  the 
existence  of  another  world  for  the  consummation  of 
this  harmony.  Kant  therefore  draws  the  conclusion, 
that  obligation  as  the  principle  of  conduct,  to  which 
the  reason  subjects  us,  presupposes  two  things,  namely, 
the  existence  of  God  and  a  future  life.  For,  unless 
there  is  a  God  as  the  wise  author  and  governor  of 
the  universe,  there  cannot  possibly  be  the  required 
harmony  between  morality  and  happiness.  If  there  is 
no  such  a  Being  and  no  future  life,  for  the  compensa- 
tion of  virtue,  then  the  moral  laws  must  be  regarded 
as  empty  phantoms,  since  the  consequences,  which 
are  implied  in  obedience  to  these  laws,  do  not  follow. 
The  moral  laws,  which  are  universally  regarded  as 
commands,  cannot  be  such  commands  if  they  do  not 
a  ^priori  connect  with  their  rules  proportionate  results, 
and  attach  to  them  promises  and  threats ;  but  they 
cannot  attach  these  unless  the  source  of  the  laws  is  a 
Being  which  is  the  Highest  Good,  for  only  this  Being 
can  fulfil  the  promises  and  execute  the  threats.  If 
we  suppose  that  there  is  no  God  and  no  future  life, 
then  the  ideas  of  morality  are,  indeed,  objects  of 
approval,  but  they  are  not  motives  for  resolutions  and 
for  the  execution  of  the  resolutions,  because  they  do 
not  fulfil  the  purpose  which  is  natural  to  every  rational 
being,  and  which  is  ordained  a  priori  and  made  neces- 
sary by  the  pure  reason. 

Neither  happiness  alone,  nor  morahty  alone,  but 
both  together,  the  one  exactly  proportioned  to  the 
other,  constitute  the  highest  good.  But  we  must  be 
careful  not  to  pervert  their  relation  to  each  other.  The 
moral  disposition  is  the  condition  for  being  made  par- 


MOEAL   THEOLOGY. 


297 


taker  of  happiness ;  but  the  prospect  of  happiness  is  not 
to  be  made  the  ground  of  a  good  disposition.  If  the 
latter  were  done,  then  the  disposition  would  not  be 
moral,  and  consequently  it  would  not  be  worthy  of 
happiness. 

This  is  an  outline  of  the  Kantian  basis  of  a  moral 
theology,  which   he   places  immeasurably   above   the 
speculative,  since  it  necessarily  leads  to  the  idea   of 
a    perfect  and    rational  Being   as    the    author  of  all 
things.     This  Being  must  be  one;  for  how  could  we 
find    a   unity   of   purpose   in   different   wills?      This 
supreme  Will  must  be  almighty,  in  order  that  nature 
and  its  relations  may  be  subject  to  it ;  it  must  be  omni- 
scient, in  order  that  it  may  know  the  innermost  pur- 
poses of  man  and  their  moral  worth ;  it  must  be  omni- 
present, in  order  that  it  may  be  present  to  meet  all  the 
necessities  required  by    the    greatest   welfare   of  the 
world ;  and  it  must  be  eternal,  in  order  that  at  no 
time  there  may  be  a  failure  to  harmonize  nature  and 
freedom,  worthiness  and  happiness.     The  ideas  thus 
practically  gained  by  reason  necessarily  lead   to  the 
conclusion  that  there  is  a  unity  of  purpose  in  all  things. 
The  world  must  be  viewed  as  having  sprung  from  one 
idea,  if  we  are  to  regard  it  as  in  harmony  with  the 
moral  use  of  reason.    Accordingly,  purpose  is  demanded 
in  nature ;  and  all  investigation  of  nature  receives  a 
tendency  towards  a  system  of  means  adapted  to  ends, 
and    in   its   highest    development    becomes    physico- 
theology. 

We  thus  find  that  for  our  highest  interests  the 
practical  reason  furnishes  what  the  speculative  cannot 
supply,  but  can  at  best  only  imagine.  While  the  prac- 
tical reason  cannot  make  this  a  demonstrated  dogma,  it 


298 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


A 


absolutely  demands  it  as  a  condition  for  its  highest 
purposes.     Kant  is  extremely  guarded  in  the  use  he 
makes  of  the  conclusions  thus  drawn  from  the  practical 
reason.     He  does  not  regard  moral  acts  as  obligatory 
because  they  are  God's    commands ;  but  he  regards 
them  as  God's  commands  because  they  are  subjectively 
obligatory.     Kant  does  not  deduce  the  moral  law  from 
the  existence    of  God ;  but    the  existence   of  God  is 
deduced  from  the  existence  of  the  moral  law.     Moral 
theology  is  to   be  used   for  practical  purposes    only, 
namely,  to  enable  us  to  fulfil  our  destiny  in  this  world ; 
and  it  is   an  abuse  to  use  for  speculative  purposes  the 
results  obtained  practically.     We  therefore  still  have 
every   reason  to  be   very  modest.     There   are   three 
stages  in  our  convictions,  namely,  opinions,  faith,  and 
knowledge.     The  practical  reason  gives  us  only  faith, 
not  dogmas  which  can  be  regarded  as  demonstrated ; 
but  this  faith  may  be  so  strong  as  to  give  its  possessor 
the   conviction   of  certainty.     This   certainty   is   not 
logical,  but  moral.     Kant  says,  "  No  one  can  boast 
that  he  knows  that  there  is  a  God  and  a  future  life ;  for 
if  he  knows  it,  he  is  just  the  man  whom  I  have  long 
been    seeking.     All  knowledge  (if  it  is   an  object   of 
pure  reason)  can  be  communicated,  and  I  should  hope 
to  see  my  knowledge  wonderfully  increased  by  his  in- 
struction.    No,  the  conviction  is  not  logicalyhut  moral 
certainty ;    and    as    it   rests   on    subjective   grounds, 
namely,  on  the  moral  disposition,  I  must  not  even  say, 
It  is  morally  certain  that  there  is  a  God,  et  cetera,  but 
I  am  morally  certain  that  this  is  the  case." 

Kant  thus  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  highest 
philosophy  cannot  determine  more  respecting  the 
essential  purposes  of  human  nature  than  to  attain  that 


OTHER    BOOKS. 


299 


guidance  which  it  is  also  the  privilege  of  the  ordinary 
understanding  to  attain. 

In  his  ''  Kritik,"  Kant  did  not  aim  to  give  a  system 
of  metaphysics.  This  he  says  plainly  in  the  Preface  of 
the  second  edition,  and  in  a  letter  to  Mendelssohn  he 
states  that  it  was  the  aim  of  the  "  Kritik  "  to  inves- 
tigate the  ground  on  which  the  superstructure  of 
metaphysic  was  to  be  built.  So  far  is  Kant  from 
believing  that  he  gave  the  system  itself  in  the  book, 
that  two  years  after  it  appeared  he  discussed  the  ques- 
tion whether  metaphysic  is  possible,  and  declared  that 
the  conditions  for  producing  a  system  had  never  yet 
been  complied  with,  and  states  plainly  that  as  yet  there 
is  no  metaphysics.  In  the ''  Kritik  "  he  gave  the  propae- 
deutics to  the  system,  while  in  the  works  following  it 
he  aimed  to  give  metaphysics  itself.  Fichte,  Schelling, 
Hegel,  and  also  others  attempted  to  give  the  system. 

Kant,  aware  of  the  difficulty  of  understanding  the 
book,  determined,  immediately  after  the  appearance  of 
the  "  Kritik,"  and  before  the  public  had  time  to  give  a 
verdict,  to  prepare  a  popular  abstract  of  the  work,  so 
as  to  make  its  results  accessible  to  a  larger  class  of 
readers.  He  immediately  began  the  preparation  of  this 
abstract,  and  he  expected  to  have  it  ready  for  the  press 
in  the  spring  of  1 782,  but  it  appeared  a  year  later, 
under  the  title,  "  Prolegomena  to  every  Future  Meta- 
physic which  can  appear  as  a  Science."  Q-^) 

While  the  "Kritik"  is  the  masterpiece  of  Kant, 
there  are  important  works  which  followed  the  ''  Prole- 
gomena," works  which  are  interesting  for  their  own 
sake,  as  well  as  on  account  of  their  relation  to  the 
"Kritik"  and  the  application  of  its  ideas.  In  1786 
he  published  his  ''  Metaphysical  Principles  of  Natural 


Y 


300 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


Science,"  in  which  he  discusses  the  laws  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  matter.  The  "  Kritik  "  had  shown  that  we 
can  know  nothing  but  phenomena ;  applying  this  to 
nature,  we  can,  of  course,  understand  only  the  mani- 
festations of  matter,  not  substances.  In  this  book  on 
Natural  Science,  Kant  discusses  the  principles  of 
motion,  applying  to  them  the  four  categories,  quantity, 
quality,  relation,  and  mode,  and  considers  the  subjects, 
phoronomics,  dynamics,  mechanics,  and  phenome- 
nology. The  book  is  only  a  kind  of  propsBdeutics  to 
a  metaphysical  system  of  natural  science. 

According  to  the  results  of  the  "  Kritik,"  the  under- 
standing gives  the  forms  of  all  knowledge,  and  this 
knowledge  deals  only  with  phenomena.  This  limits 
our  knowledge  to  nature,  and  a  metaphysic  of  nature, 
if  complete,  would  embrace  the  whole  domain  of  the 
knowable.  Man  would  thus  be  treated  as  also  a  pro- 
duct of  nature.  But  the  "  Kritik"  had  also  shown  that 
we  have  moral  interests,  the  principles  of  which  are 
given  a  priori,  they  being  the  product  of  pure  reason. 
While,  therefore,  the  understanding  deals  with  nature, 
the  reason  deals  with  morals.  In  the  *'  Critique  of  the 
Practical  Reason,"  and  in  his  other  works  on  morals  and 
religion,  Kant  embodied  what  he  regarded  as  the  prin- 
ciples of  reason  respecting  our  conduct.  But  in  thus 
giving  the  principles  of  nature  and  of  morals  he  did 
not  yet  complete  his  work.  One  more  critique  was 
necessary,  namely,  the  **  Critique  of  the  Judgment. "(' 2^) 

The  reason  is  the  faculty  which  gives  principles 
a  priori.  These  principles  are  regulative,  not  constitu- 
tive. The  understanding,  on  the  other  hand,  gives 
categories  a  priori,  which  are  the  laws  for  all  pheno- 
mena.    Whatever  speculative  notions  are  not  included 


THE   FACULTIES   OF   THE   MIND. 


301 


under  these  laws  of  the  understanding,  are  ideas 
(such  as  soul,  God,  freedom)  which  belong  to  the 
reason.  Since  we  cannot  prove  that  any  reality 
corresponds  with  these  ideas,  they  are,  as  Kant  says, 
not  constitutive ;  but  they  are  regulative  ideas,  being 
guides  to  us  in  our  investigation  and  practice.  Thus 
by  means  of  these  regulative  principles,  the  under- 
standing is  checked  in  its  assumption  that  it  has 
included  all  things  in  its  categories,  and  it  is  also 
guided  in  its  contemplations  of  nature  to  proceed 
according  to  a  perfect  principle. 

Kant  divides  the  faculties  of  the  soul  as  follows  :  the 
faculty  of  knowledge  ;  that  of  the  emotions  of  pleasure 
and  displeasure;  and  the  appetitive  faculty;  or  into 
intellect,    susceptibility,    and  will.     The    intellect    he 
divides    into  understanding,   judgment,    and    reason. 
From  the  understanding  proceed  the  laws  for  nature, 
from  the  reason  the  laws  for  freedom ;  the  former  is 
theoretical,  the  latter  is  practical.     Here,  then,  we  have 
the  reason  and  the  understanding  strictly  separated, 
each  having  its  domain  where  it  is  supreme, — the  reason 
in  determining  free  conduct,  and  the  understanding 
in  giving  the  laws  of  nature.     How  can  they  be  united  ? 
According  to  Kant,  the  judgment  mediates  between 
the  understanding  and  the  reason,  between  nature  and 
freedom,  between  the  sensible  and  the  supersensible,  all 
of  which  were  shown  by  the  "  Kritik  "  to  be  sharply 
separated.      The  judgment  is  based  on  the  idea  that 
there  is  design  in  nature.    This  design,  while  in  nature, 
is  nevertheless  a  principle   of  freedom,  and  is,  accord- 
ingly, a  union  of  nature  and  of  freedom,  or  of  the 
understanding,  which  gives  laws  to  nature,  and  of  the 
reason,   which    gives   laws    to    freedom.     It   is    the 


302 


TUE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


BEAUTV. 


303 


judgment  which  discovers  design  in  nature.  This 
design  is  twofold;  it  is  viewed  as  applying  only  to 
ourselves,  namely,  as  producing  in  us  pleasure  or  dis- 
pleasure, and  the  judgment  deals  with  design  in  this 
sense  under  the  head  of  taste ;  or  design  is  in  things 
themselves,  and  then  it  must  be  teleological,  having  re- 
ference to  the  Author  of  the  design.  In  the  "  Critique 
of  the  Judgment  "  there  are  therefore  two  parts,  the 
first  discussing  the  aesthetic  judgment,  the  second  the 
teleological.  It  is  the  former  which  chiefly  interests 
us,  which  has  also  had  the  greatest  influence  on  litera- 
ture.    Kant's  view  of  art  is  found  mainly  in  this  book. 

What  is  the  beautiful  ?  It  is  that  whose  very  contem- 
plation pleases  us ;  its  very  form  gives  pleasure.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  pleasure,  the  first  derived  from  the 
agreeable,  the  second  from  the  beautiful,  and  the  third 
from  the  good  ;  but  it  is  only  in  the  case  of  the  beautiful 
that  the  mere  contemplation  gives  pleasure.  The  hun- 
gry man  is  not  satisfied  with  a  mere  thought  or  the  sight 
of  a  feast,  nor  the  moral  man  with  a  mere  representation 
of  the  good  ;  in  each  case  the  thing  itself  is  desired,  the 
one  to  be  eaten,  the  other  to  be  done.  But  the  aesthetic 
taste  is  satisfied  with  the  mere  representation  of  a  beau- 
tiful object  and  with  its  contemplation;  the  appropriation 
of  the  object,  or  its  use  in  any  sense,  is  foreign  to  this 
taste.  It  is  not  use,  nor  appropriation,  nor  knowledge, 
which  is  the  essence  of  the  aesthetic  ;  but  it  is  a  pleasure 
which  springs  solely  from  the  contemplation  of  an 
object.  In  aesthetics,  therefore,  we  have  a  purely  dis- 
interested emotion.  (*") 

Kant  does  not  discuss  beauty  in  objects,  but  only 
the  impression  which  it  makes  on  the  soul,  or  the 
emotion  of  the  beautiful.     He  calls  the  agreeable,  that 


which  gratifies  ;  the  beautiful,  that  which  pleases ;  the 
good,  that  which  one  approves.  The  agreeable  is  for 
irrational  animals  as  well  as  for  man ;  the  good  is  for  all 
rational  beings ;  the  beautiful  is  only  for  beings  both 
animal  and  rational,  that  is,  it  is  for  man.  The  beau- 
tiful is,  therefore,  peculiarly  human. 

"  Beauty  in  nature  is  a  beautiful  object ;  beauty  in 
art  is  a  beautiful  representation  of  an  object."  It  is 
the  aim  of  the  beautiful  arts  to  produce  beauty  which 
pleases  of  itself,  without  reflection  and  without  use. 
As  has  already  been  stated,  it  is  only  in  art  that  Kant 
admits  any  genius,  and  he  says,  "  Beautiful  art  is  the 
art  of  genius."  A  Newton  produces  a  system  which 
another  can  master  and  reproduce  in  his  own  mind — 
we  can  think  his  thoughts  after  him ;  but  Homer  cannot 
be  imitated.  "  Genius  is  the  talent,  or  gift  of  nature, 
which  gives  to  art  its  law." 

A  production  may  be  according  to  rules,  and  yet 
lack  spirit.  There  are  poems,  histories,  conversations, 
which  are  correct  and  instructive,  but  they  lack  spirit, 
the  very  thing  which  is  the  living  element  and  the  soul 
of  a  production.  What  is  this  spirit  ?  It  is  simply 
the  ability  to  represent  aesthetic  ideas.  By  an 
aesthetic  idea  Kant  means  that  product  of  the  ima- 
gination which  inspires  thought,  although  it  cannot 
itself  be  definitely  given  in  thought,  hence  language 
can  never  adequately  represent  it.  We  may  say, 
therefore,  that  Kant  means  by  the  spirit  of  a  pro- 
duction, the  symbols  of  thought  embodied  in  it,  but 
not  fully  expressed ;  it  is  the  suggestive  element  in  a 
production.  The  elements  necessary  for  the  production 
of  the  fine  arts  are  the  imagination,  spirit,  and  taste. 

The  times  were  favourable  for  giving  this  book  an 


f 


304 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANQEL    KANT. 


LAST    MANUSCRIPa\ 


305 


influence  in  literature.  Through  Baumgarten,  Lessing, 
Winckelman,  and  others,  a  new  impulse  had  been 
given  to  the  study  of  aesthetics,  and  Kant  aimed  to 
give  the  essence  of  the  whole  matter  in  this 
book.  Schiller  was  much  indebted  to  this  "  Critique 
of  the  Judgment,"  and  he  modified  and  used  its  prin- 
cipal thoughts  in  his  ''  Esthetic  Letters  "  and  other 
writings,  just  as  he  embodied  many  of  Kant's  moral 
ideas  in  his  poetry.  Goethe  read  Kant's  works  much 
less  than  Schiller,  but  he  thought  highly  of  this  book. 
His  criticism  of  it  is,  that  it  "  discusses  rhetoric 
admirably,  and  poetry  tolerably  well,  but  the  plastic 
arts  inadequately." 

The  last  book  written  by  Kant  appeared  in  1 798, 
and  discussed  the  conflict  for  supremacy  between  the 
different  faculties  in  the  universities.  It  is  particularly 
interesting  on  account  of  its  views  of  religion,  and 
the  references  to  his  health ;  and  frequent  use  has  been 
made  of  it  in  this  biography.  This,  however,  did  not 
end  his  efforts  at  authorship.  Till  near  the  end  of 
his  life  he  worked  on  a  manuscript  which  has  a 
melancholy  interest  for  us.  After  completing  various 
other  literary  plans,  he  was  anxious  to  give  a  fitting 
close  to  his  philosophy  by  the  publication  of  still 
another  work.  As  early  as  1795  his  friend  Kiesewetter 
wrote  to  him  from  Berlin,  complaining  that  the  last 
catalogues  contained  no  announcement  of  books  by 
him,  and  adds,  "  For  several  years  you  have  intended 
to  give  the  public  a  number  of  sheets  on  the  transition 
from  your  *  Metaphysical  Principles  of  Natural  Science ' 
to  physics."  In  1798  Kant  wrote  to  his  friend,  "  My 
health  is  that  of  an  old  man  who  is  not  sick,  never- 
theless is  an  invalid  who  has  become  unfit  for  public 


official  duties,  but  is  still  conscious  of  a  small  measure 
of  strength  to  complete  a  work  on  which  he  is  now 
engaged,  with  which  he  expects  to  complete  the 
Critical  undertaking  and  to  fill  up  a  still  remaining  gap, 
namely,  ''  The  Transition  from  the  Metaphysical  Prin- 
ciples of  Natural  Science  to  Physics,"  as  a  separate 
part  of  natural  philosophy  which  must  not  be  omitted 
in  the  system." 

Prom  Hasse  (^")  we  learn  that  for  some  years  Kant 
worked  on  this  manuscript,  that  its  title  was  to  be, 
"  The  system  of  Pure  Philosophy  according  to  its  com- 
plete  idea,"  and  that  in  it  he  discussed  philosophy,  God, 
freedom,  and  especially  the  transition  from  physics  to 
metaphysics.     This  friend  of  Kant  says  of  the  manu- 
script,  *'  Kant  was  accustomed  to  speak  confidentially 
of  this  as  his  principal  work,  his  chef-d'oeuvre,  and 
to  say  that  it  was  to  complete  his  system,  that  it  was 
already  finished,  and  needed   only  revision."     Jach- 
mann   states,    "Kant  was  accustomed  to  speak  with 
genuine  inspiration  to  me  about  his  last  book,  which 
was,  he   declared,  to   be   the  keystone   of   his  entire 
system,  and  would  establish  the  validity  and  applica- 
bility of  his  philosophy."     While  he  sometimes  spoke 
of   the  manuscript  as  so  far  completed   as   to   need 
only  ^^the  last  file,"  at  others  he  had  his  doubts  about 
the  matter  and  expressed  the  wish  that  it  should  be 
burnt  after  his  death. 

Kant  adopted  the  old  Greek  division  of  philosophy 
into  the  three  sciences,  physics,  ethics,  and  logic.  The 
last  is  pure  formal  philosophy,  since  it  deals  merely 
with  the  forms  or  the  necessary  and  universal  laws 
of  thought.  The  other  two,  physics  and  ethics,  may 
be   called  material  philosophy,  since   they  deal   with 


/ 


306 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


objects  and  their  laws.  The  objects  of  which  material 
pldlosophy  treats,  are  nature  and  freedom,  the  science 
of  the  former  being  physics,  of  the  latter,  ethics. 
There  are,  however,  both  in  nature  and  in  freedom, 
two  kinds  of  elements,  namely,  the  a  priori  and  the 
a  posteriori,  the  rational  and  the  empirical ;  therefore, 
we  have  both  rational  and  empirical  physics  and  morals. 

Kant  deals  with  the  rational  elements  of  science, 
his  aim  being  to  put  them  on  an  immovable  basis  ;  he 
discusses  pure,  not  applied  philosophy.  Pure  philo- 
sophy rests  solely  on  a  priori  principles,  and  has  no 
empirical  elements.  Pure  formal  philosophy  is  logic. 
But  if  pure  philosophy  deals  with  objects,  and  not 
merely  with  forms  of  thought,  it  is  called  metaphysics. 
These  objects  being  those  of  nature  and  of  freedom,  we 
have  a  metaphysic  of  nature  and  a  metaphysic  of 
morals,  in  both  of  which  there  is  simply  a  discussion 
of  a  priori  principles.  In  order  that  there  may  be  a 
complete  system  of  metaphysics,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
in  it  a  system  of  nature  based  on  d  prion  principles, 
and  a  system  of  morals  also  based  on  a  priori  principles. 
The  latter  Kant  gave  in  his  works  on  morals,  but  for 
the  former  he  gave  only  the  propaedeutics  in  his 
"  Metaphysical  Principles  of  Natural  Science."  The 
last  manuscript  was,  no  doubt,  intended  to  be  the 
science  of  nature  based  on  a  priori  principles,  for  which 
this  book  was  the  preparation. 

After  the  death  of  Kant,  the  manuscript  was  found 
among  his  papers,  and  was  carefully  examined  with  a 
view  to  its  publication,  but  it  was  found  that  there  was 
so  much  confusion  in  the  thoughts  that  it  was  alto- 
gether unfit  to  appear  in  print.  Hasse  says,  **  The 
idea  of  philosophy  seems  to  have  caused  the  sublime 


ITS    CHARACTER. 


307 


thinker  much  trouble,  since  the  subject  was  so  often 
crossed  out  and  worked  over."     After  this  examination 
the  manuscript  was  lost  sight  of  for  a  long  time  ;  then 
Schubert  saw  it  in  Berlin  and  examined  it,  but  did  not 
have  access  to  it  long  enough  to  describe  it  fully.     It 
disappeared  again,  and  all  trace  of  it  was  lost  until  re- 
cently, when  a  description  of  it  was  sent  to  Dr.  Reicke, 
of  Konigsberg.(^2')    From  this  description  we  learn  that, 
in  the  beginning  of  this  manuscript,  Kant  made  great 
efforts  to  define  transcendental  philosophy  and  to  give 
the  objects  of  which  it  treats.     «  That  definition   is 
attempted   several  hundred  times,  at  least,   and   the 
following  are  mentioned  as  its  objects,  God,  the  world, 
and  man  in  the  world."     It    bears  this  title,    ''The 
Transition  from  the  Metaphysical  Principles  of  Natural 
Science  to  Physics."     There  are  one  hundred  sheets, 
most   of   them    written    quite    legibly    and    without 
abbreviations.  Besides  the  definitions  of  transcendental 
philosophy,  the  manuscript  treats  chiefly  of  subjects 
pertaining   to  physics.     In  different   parts   the  same 
subjects  are  treated,  Kant  evidently  having  forgotten 
that  he  had  already  discussed  them.     Many  subjects 
are  begun,  but  nothing  is  completed ;  the  same  thought 
is  frequently  repeated;  there  are  laborious  efforts  to 
produce  system,  but,  instead,  there  is  hopeless  con- 
fusion and  a  strange  mixture  of  thoughts.     Instead  of 
continuing  the  discussion  of  the  subject   under  con- 
sideration, Kant  seems  at  times  to  have  written  what- 
ever stray  thought  happened  to  be  in  his  mind  ;  and  on 
the  margin  and  between  the  lines  there  are  all  kinds 
of  miscellaneous  remarks  and   domestic  memoranda. 
In  one  place  he  wrote  that  henceforth  the  day  of  prayer 
ought  to  be  called  a  day  of  repentance,  and  that  re- 

X  2 


y 


k' 


308 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


TRANSCENDENTAL   PHILOSOPHY. 


309 


pentance  should  not  consist  in  asking  for  forgiveness, 
but  in  making  restitution. 

The  manuscript  gives  an  insight  into  the  state  of 
Kant's  mind  and  the  character  of  his  intellectual  occu- 
pations towards  the  close  of  his  life.  In  his  plans  and 
in  his  subjects  we  find  him  intellectually  great  to  the 
last.  He  still  attempted  to  solve  the  great  mysteries 
of  mind  and  nature,  and  his  thoughts  continued  to 
move  in  the  sphere  to  which  he  had  given  his  best 
energies  for  over  half  a  century;  but  he  could  no 
longer  concentrate  his  attention  steadily  on  any  subject. 
He  was  not  able  to  develop  a  thought  fully,  and,  still 
less,  to  unite  the  different  thoug-hts  into  a  system  ;  and 
his  memory  was  too  weak  to  remember  what  he  had 
already  written.  Repeatedly  he  attempts  to  wrestle 
with  the  profoundest  problems  of  the  human  intellect, 
but  is  baffled  in  every  effort  at  solution.  The  contrast 
between  the  grand  plan  and  the  feeble  execution  is  as 
striking  as  it  is  sad.  That  the  author  of  the  "  Kritik  " 
could  at  any  time  imagine  that  this  jumble  needed 
only  revision  in  order  to  make  it  ready  for  the  press, 
shows  how  completely  the  great  mind  had  lost  its 
grasp. 

His  efforts  to  define  transcendental  philosophy  are 
found  at  the  beginning  of  the  manuscript,  and  were, 
no  doubt,  made  before  his  mind  had  lost  the  power  of 
consecutive  thought.  While  he  had  lost  much  of  his 
former  vigour,  it  is,  nevertheless,  an  evidence  of  the 
extreme  difficulty  of  the  subject  that,  after  devoting 
so  many  years  to  metaphysics  and  after  writing  the 
''  Kritik,"  he  should  have  made  hundreds  of  futile 
attempts  to  define  transcendental  philosophy.  Did  he 
change  his  former  views  of  the  whole  subject  ?     He 


I 


seems,  also,  to  have  had  difficulty  in  determining  the 
objects   with    which   metaphysics    deals,   though   he 
formerly  thought  that    this  had  been  settled   by  the 
"  Kritik."     God,  nature,  and  man,  are  mentioned  as 
these  objects ;  but,  unfortunately,  we  do  not  know  how 
the   great   metaphysician   at  last    viewed   the    whole 
matter.     What  might  not  have  been  accomplished  if, 
with  his  powers  unimpaired,  he  had  been  able  to  carry 
out  his  plan  to  give  a  complete  system  of  pure  philo- 
sophy !     Then  we  should  have  had  the  "  Kritik  "  as 
the  propaedeutics  to  the  system,  while  his  works  on 
morals,  and  the  work  to  which  he  devoted  his  last 
labours,  would  have  given  the  system  itself. 


M 


310 


THE    LIFE   OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


MOI?AL    AXD   THEOLOGICAL    INFLUENCE. 


311 


CHAPTER  X. 

MORAL    AND    RELIGIOUS    VIEWS    AND    CHARACTER. 

Importance  of  the  subject — Freedom — Conscience  a  sufficient  guide 
— Duty — The  practical  reason — Its  primacj — The  good  will — 
Emotionless  morality  —  Categorical  Imperative  —  Maxims — 
Stoicism — Integrity — Truthfulness — Emotional  nature — Basis 
of  his  theology — Postulates — Religious  character  of  the  age — 
Rationalism — Historical  faith — History  depreciated — His  re- 
ligion essentially  morality — View  of  Scripture — Moral  interpre- 
tation— Public  and  private  use  of  reason — The  Trinity — Christ 
—Sin — Conversion — The  Church — Worship — The  next  world 
— Ministers — Influence  of  his  rationalism — Explanation  of  his 
theology — Called  to  account  by  the  Government 

Kant's  Critical  Philosophy  rec€5ives  and  deserves  more 
attention  than  his  practical  works,  on  account  of  its 
profundity  and  because  it  has  exerted  the  greatest 
influence  and  determined  his  place  in  history ;  if,  how- 
ever, we  want  to  understand  the  man  himself,  we  must 
also  consider  his  relation  to  morals  and  religion.  The 
supreme  importance  which  he  himself  attached  to  these 
subjects,  and  the  light  which  his  moral  and  religious 
views  throw  on  his  mind  and  heart,  make  it  the  more 
necessary  to  give  them  a  prominent  place  in  his  bio- 
graphy. The  fact  that  he  did  not  establish  morality 
and  religion  on  a  firm  speculative  basis,  and  that  in 
some  respects  his  efi*orts  to  do  so  reveal  his  weakness 
rather  than  his  strength,  does  not  in  the  least  justify 


,] 


a  neglect  of  these  subjects  here  where  the  interest  is 
not  centred  on  the  truth  of  the  system  but  on  the 
character  of  its  author.     Even  when  his  influence  is 
considered,  his  practical  as  well  as  his  speculative  works 
must  be  taken  into  the  account.     If  the  former  have 
received  less  attention  than  they  deserve,  it  is  because 
men  have  been  so  dazzled  by  the  brightness  of  the 
latter  that  they  have  overlooked  his  other  works ;  just 
as  over  Goethe's  literary  productions  men  forget  that 
he  also  wrote  on  scientific  subjects.     Kant's  influence 
on  morals  and  religion  was  only  second  to  that  exerted 
by  him  on  philosophy.     The  Kantian  morality  filled 
works  on  ethics,  was  taught  in  the  universities,  was 
preached  from  the  pulpits,  and  was  potent  in  shaping 
conduct  and  in  determining  the  moral  tone  of  literature 
At  the  close  of  last  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
mneteenth,  the  number  of  Kantian  theologians  was 
legion ;  and  Kantian  theology,  as  well  as  the  Critical 
Philosophy,    forms   a   prominent   period    in   German 
literature.     It  was  through  his  marvellous  power  that 
the  various  anti-orthodox  tendencies  which  flourished 
during  the  period  of  lUumination  were  concentrated 
into  Rationalism. ('2«) 

Kant  rejected  the  doctrine  of  natural  depravity 
though  he  held  that  every  man  sins ;  but  instead  of 
regarding  this  as  a  consequence  of  an  original  corrup- 
tion of  human  nature,  he  held  that,  in  the  case  of  every 
individual,  it  is  the  result  of  free  choice.  While  we 
cannot  understand  how  sin  could  enter  the  world,  or 
how  a  man  can  pass  from  a  state  of  purity  to  corrup, 
tion,  the  fact  of  sin  itself  cannot  be  questioned.  During 
the  period  of  Illumination  it  became  common  to  view 
sm  superficially  and  sentimentally;  but  Kant,   with 


X 


312 


THE    TilPB    OF    IMMAJS'UEL    KANT. 


his  profound  knowledge  of  human  nature,  had  a  deep 
view  of  sin,  pronounced  men  depraved,  and  called  the 
evil  reigning  in  man  radical.  Nevertheless,  in  spite 
of  this  deep  and  universal  prevalence  of  sin  among  men, 
he  held  that  the  original  nature  is  good,  and  that  if 
this  nature  were  only  properly  developed,  man  would 
be  morally  perfect,  and  he  says,  "  The  germs  which  lie 
in  man  need  only  be  more  and  more  developed ;  for 
the  grounds  of  evil  are  not  found  in  the  natural  en- 
dowments of  man.  The  source  of  evil  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  human  nature  is  not  subjected  to  rules. 
There  are  in  man  no  germs  except  for  that  which  is 
good." 

In  order  that  the  development  may  be  perfectly 
moral,  it  is  only  necessary  to  follow  the  dictates  of 
conscience.  "  The  law  within  us,"  as  he  defines  con- 
science, is  an  infallible  guide;  and  nothing  but 
obedience  to  this  can  give  a  man  dignity  and  worth. 
On  this  autonomy  of  man  he  places  the  strongest 
emphasis;  it  determines  the  entire  character  of  his 
system  of  morals,  and  largely  influences  his  theological 
views.  While  others  laid  the  stress  on  man's  freedom 
with  reference  to  the  creature,  Kant  also  emphasized 
this  freedom  in  man's  relation  to  God ;  and  as  in  his 
cosmogony  he  held  that  nature's  laws,  originating  with 
God,  work  without  the  interposition  of  the  Divine 
agency,  so  he  held  that  conscience,  originally  proceeding 
from  God,  is  of  itself  sufficient  to  be  the  guide  in 
morals  and  religion.  Thus  man  is  not  only  free,  but, 
as  far  as  moral  guidance  is  concerned,  he  is  independent, 
and  it  is  unworthy  of  him  to  subject  himself  to 
external  authority  in  morals.  While  Kant  regards 
the  conscience  as  the  gift  of  God,  it  is  easy  to  under- 


NATURE    OF   MORALITY. 


313 


I 


stand  why  he  bases  morality  directly  on  conscience, 
not  on  God.  We  have  an  immediate  knowledge  of 
conscience;  by  means  of  its  activity  it  makes  itself 
known  directly  to  consciousness  ;  but  the  existence  of 
God  is,  according  to  the  "  Kritik,"  inferred  chiefly 
from  the  fact  that  man  has  a  conscience.  The 
existence  of  conscience  is  for  us  a  primitive  fact,  that 
of  God  is  derivative.  The  moral  law  in  us  being  the 
evidence  of  God's  existence,  instead  of  being  dependent 
on  that  existence,  is  treated  by  Kant  as  authoritative 
for  us  if  even  there  were  no  God.  Wliatever  the 
ultimate  ground  of  morals  may  be,  for  us  its  source  is 
in  ourselves ;  for  conscience  is  an  absolute  law  unto 
itself. 

What  is  duty  ?     Kant  answers  that  it  is  the  obliga- 
tion to  act  solely  from  regard  for  the  moral  law ;  and 
he  wants  it  to  be  perfectly  pure,  that  is,  uninfluenced 
by  any  motive  whatever  except  regard  for  that  law. 
Pure  duty  is  its  own  absolute  and  all-sufficient  motive  ; 
and  the  oughty  in  perfect  and  cold  isolation,  is  the  sole, 
as   well    as   the    supreme    rule   in   morals.     Nothing 
inspires  Kant  more  than  this  idea  of  duty,   and   he 
becomes  eloquent    and  enthusiastic  in   discussing  it. 
He  says  that  the  two  objects  which  fill  the  spirit  with 
ever  new  and  increasing  admiration  the  oftener  and  the 
more  continuously  reflection  dwells  on  them,  are  the 
starry  heavens  above  us  and  the  moral  law  within  us. 
And  he  exclaims,  "  Duty  !  thou  great,  subhme  name  ! 
thou    includest     nothing    which    flatters,     but    thou 
demandest  subjection ;  neither,  on  the  other  hand,  dost 
thou  threaten  anything  which  excites  a  natural  aversion 
in  the  soul,  nor  dost  thou  frighten  in  order  to  move 
the  soul;  but  thou  only  announcest  a  law  which  of 


0 


314 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


PlilMACY   OF   THE    PRACTICAL    REASON. 


315 


itself  finds  access  to  the  spirit,  and  in  spite  of  itself 
excites  reverence — a  law  before  which  all  inclinations 
are  dumb,  though  in  secret  they  oppose  it." 

The  reason  having  two  functions,  the  theoretical  and 
the  practical,  the  former  deals  with  knowledge,   the 
latter  with  conduct.  (^^^)     In  both  functions  the  reason 
is  a  priori^  its  laws  being  inherent  in  itself  and  not  the 
product  of  experience.     Hence  it  is  the  pure  practical 
reason  (with  no  empirical  elements)  which  determines 
a  priori  the  principles  of  conduct,  just  as   the   pure 
speculative  reason   gives  ideas.     This  pure,  practical 
reason   is,  according  to    Kant,  simply  the  free  will. 
Speculatively  we  can  determine  nothing  respecting  it, 
but  practically  we  must  accept  it  as  the  source   of 
conduct  and  the  basis  of  morality.     Without  freedom 
there  could  be  neither  morality  nor  worthiness;  but 
since  men   are  free,  their  dignity  requires  that  they 
should  not  be  treated  as  mere  means,  instead  of  ends. 
Since  the  reason  is  both  speculative  and  practical, 
it  is  a  question  of  the  utmost  importance  in  morals, 
"  Which  is  the  more  important  function  ?  "     We  have 
already  found  the  answer ;  but  we  must  emphasize  it, 
as  otherwise  the  negative  results  of  the  "Kritik  "  will 
be  likely  to  affect  our  views  of  his  moral  system.     With 
an  emphasis  that  is  unmistakable,  the  speculative  Kant 
gives    the   preference    to  the    practical    reason,    and 
declares  that  to  it  belongs  the  "primacy."     Its  prin- 
ciples, like  those  of  the  speculative  reason,  are  a  priori^ 
universal,   and   necessary;    they,     indeed,    must   not 
conflict  with  the  speculative  reason,  nevertheless  they 
transcend  it,  since  it  cannot  explain  these  principles. 
If  the  practical  were  subject  to  the  speculative  reason, 
then   its    principles,    which    the    speculative     cannot 


explain,  would  have  to  be  rejected.     Even  the  interest 
of  the  speculative  reason  is  only  conditional,  and  is 
made  perfect  in  its  practical  application.     It  is  not  the 
fact  that  man  has  reason  which  elevates  him  above 
the  brute,   if  that  reason  only  enables  him  to  do  for 
himself  what  instinct  does  for  the  animal ;  in  that  case 
reason  would  indicate  for  man  no  higher  aim  or  destiny 
than  that  of  the  brute,  but  only  a  different  way  of 
attaining  the  same  end.     Man  is  elevated  above  the 
animal  because  he  has  an  aim  which  it  cannot  have. 
Reason  distinguishes  between  good  and  bad,  and  it 
can  make  morality  the  ruling  purpose  of  life  ;  this  is 
man's  prerogative  and  glory. 

Kant  declares  that  there  is  nothing  good  in  the 
world,  except  the  good  will.('2«)  Not  only  does  he  em- 
phasize  this,  but  he  also  gives  it  a  strictly  literal 
application  to  morality.  The  good  will  is  one  which 
acts  purely  from  regard  for  the  moral  law ;  and  this 
will  alone,  and  not  culture,  nor  endowments,  nor 
emotions  of  any  kind,  irfakes  a  man  good.  An  act 
may  conform  to  the  law  without  being  moral ;  it  is 
moral  only  when  it  is  done  for  the  sake  of  the  law.  If 
a  man  is  honest  from  policy,  not  from  regard  for  the 
law,  his  honesty  is  legal,  not  moral.  Neither  is  that 
benevolence  moral  which  springs  from  pity  for  the 
suffering,  not  from  regard  for  the  law,  and  he  says  in 
his  *'  Basis  for  the  Metaphysics  of  Morality  :"— 

"  It  is  a  duty  to  be  charitable  when  one  can ;  and 
many  souls  are  so  sympathetic  that,  without  any 
other  motive  of  vanity  or  selfishness,  they  find  an  in- 
ward joy  in  spreading  joy,  and  they  take  pleasure  in 
the  satisfaction  of  others  as  far  as  it  is  their  work. 
But  I  declare  that  in  such  a  case  these  acts,  however 


\  J 


316 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


THE    CATEGORICAL    IMPERATIVE. 


317 


dutiful,  however  lovely  they   may   be,  have  no  real 
moral  worth ;  but  they  are  to  be  classed  with  other 
inclinations,    as,    for    instance,    with    the    desire   for 
honour  when  it  agrees  with  what  is  generally  bene- 
ficial and  dutiful,  and  therefore  is  also  honourable  and 
deserving   of   praise  and  encouragement,  but  not   of 
esteem ;  for  the  maxim  lacks  moral  worth,  which  does 
not  do  such  deeds  from  inclination,  but  because  it  is 
a  duty  to  do  them."     Kant  supposes  the  case  of  a  man 
who  is  so  much  absorbed  in  his  own  grief  that  the 
calamities  of  others  do  not  touch  him.     If  now  he  re- 
lieves others  solely  from  duty,  without  any  inclination, 
"  only  then  has  the  deed  genuine  moral  worth."     He 
seems  to  describe  himself  in  the  following :  "  If  nature 
had  put  but  little  sympathy  into  the  heart  of  a  person ; 
if  he,  an  honest  man,   were  from  temperament  indif- 
ferent and  cold  toward  the  sufferings  of  others,  perhaps 
because  he  is  furnished  with  the  special  gift  of  patience 
and  persevering  endurance  with  respect  to  his  own, 
and  also  expects  and  even  demands  the  same  of  others ; 
if  nature  had  formed  such  a  man   (who  would  verily 
not  be  her  worst  product)   not  specially  for  a  phil- 
anthropist, would  not  he,  nevertheless,  find  in  himself 
a   source  of  much  greater   Worth    than   that   which 
springs  from  a  kind  temperament  ?     Certainly.     Just 
there  the  worth  of  that  character  begins  which  is  moral 
and    without    comparison   the   highest,   namely,   the 
character  which  does  good  from  duty,  not  from  incli- 
nation.''   Not  only  does  he  want  to  banish  all  emotions, 
even  the  higher  ones,  from  morality,  but  he  also  fails 
to  mediate  between  duty  and  feeling;    the  two  are 
separated  by  a  gulf  which  he  leaves  fixed  and  impas- 
sable.    Disciples   and   great   admirers  of  Kant  have 


regarded  his  system  as  defective  in  this  respect,  and 
could  not  agree  with  him  that  the  noblest  feelings  are 
a  hindrance  to  moraHty ;  and  some  of  the  Kantian 
moralists,  especially  Schiller,  have  attempted  to 
mediate  between  the  emotions  and  morals,  and  to 
introduce  soul  as  well  as  conscience  into  his  cold  and 
stern  and  heartless  morality.  C^^) 

While  in  his  moral  philosophy  everything  revolves 
around  conscience,  free  will,  and  duty,  Kant  also  gives 
what  he  regards  as  the  highest  principle  of  morality 
and  the  most  general   rule  of  conduct,    namely,    his 
celebrated    Categorical  Imperative.     It   is  this    law: 
''  Act  in  such  a  way  that  the  maxim  of  thy  conduct  might 
be  made  a  general  law.'\'''^)     This  law  excludes  all 
selfishness,  and  is  in  no  sense  a  maxim  of  prudence  or 
expediency ;  it  takes  into  account  neither  results  nor 
any  possible  contingencies,  but  it  is  always,  and  every- 
where, and  for  every  person,  absolutely  and  impera- 
tively, the  supreme  rule  of  action.     Instead  of  con- 
sidering  only  the    actor,  it   takes  all   mankind   into 
the   account,  and  declares   that  the  law  of   conduct 
ought  to  be  one  which  I  could  wish  every  other  human 
being  to   adopt ;  for  it   says,  act  in  such  a  way  that 
you  could  wish  every  one  else  to  act  in  the  same  way. 
This  Categorical  Imperative  is  essentially  the  same  as 
the  Golden  Rule  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

This  sublime  law,  so  free  from  every  objectionable 
motive,  was  received  with  all  the  more  enthusiasm 
because  it  was  in  such  striking  contrast  with  the  pre- 
valent morality.  It  reveals  the  moral  grandeur  in 
Kant  himself,  gives  the  key  to  his  whole  system  of 
morals,  and  indicates  the  spirit  of  his  ethics.  But  he 
is  far  from  being  satisfied  with  general  laws  ;  he  wants 


318 


THE   LIFE   OP  IMMAN0EL   KANT. 


i 


1i 


I 


rules  even  for  the  details  of  life,  and  leaves  as  little 
room  for  spontaneity  in  conduct  as  lie  does  for  in- 
clination.    In  his  works   there   are  numerous  maxims 
-  which   throw  light  on  his   views   as  well  as  his  life. 
Not  only  was  he  in  the  habit  of  making  general  rules 
and  such  as  covered  important  cases,  but  he  also  made 
maxims  for  matters  of  minor  importance.     These  rules 
were   sharply  defined,    stood   out  in  bold  relief,   and 
received    an    unusual    prominence    and    importance. 
This  effort  to  shape  life,  its  emotions,  as  well  as  its 
thoughts  and  volitions,  according  to   rules,  was  the 
natural  result  of  his   desire  to  reduce   everything  to 
method  and  to  system.     In  the  course  of  time  these 
maxims,  like  the  rules  of  grammar,  were  used  without 
thinking  of  them.     In  early  life  he  found  himself  liable 
to  yield  to  the    first   impulse,    whence   consequences 
resulted  to  himself  and  others  which  he  had  reason  to 
regret.     In  order  to  avoid  such  contingencies  in  the 
future,  he  determined  to  use  these  occasions  for  the 
formation  of  maxims  covering  those  peculiar  cases; 
these  were  to  be  his  rules  of  conduct  under  similar 
circumstances.     With  his  indomitable  will  he  carried 
out  these  resolutions ;  and  Jachmann  states  that  he 
followed  with  unswerving  firmness  the  maxims  once 
adopted.     "  In  this  way  his  whole  life,  in  the  course 
of  time,  became  a  chain  of  maxims."     Rarely  can  it 
be  said  with  equal  truth  that  the  maxims  are  the  man. 
The  writer  just  quoted  gives  an  illustration  of  the 
manner  in    which   they   were  formed.     One  day,  as 
Kant  was  returning  home  from  a  walk,  a  count  who 
was  riding  in    his   carriage  met    him.     He    stopped, 
alighted,  and  asked  him  to  take  a  drive  with  him,  and 
Kant  accepted  the  invitation.     The  spirited  and  fleet 


MAXIMS. 


319 


horses  made  the  philosopher  nervous.     After  driving 
over  his  possessions,  the  count  proposed   that  they 
should  visit  a  friend  a  few  miles   distant,  and  out  of 
politeness  Kant  assented.     Contrary  to  his  usual  cus- 
tom,  he  did  not  reach  home  till  ten  in  the  evening. 
Ihe  whole  affair  was  exceedingly  disagreeable  to  him; 
and  to  avoid  like  occurrences  in  the  future  he  adopted 
the  rule,  never  again  to  let  any  one  take  him  pleasure- 
riding,and  to  enter  a  carriage  only  when  it  was  under  his 
own  control.(>^«  ^)     "  As  soon  as  he  had  formed  such  a 
maxim  he  knew  just  what  to  do  in  similar  cases,  and 
nothmg  m  the  world  could  induce  him  to  depart  from 
the  rule  adopted.-     This  determination  to   regulate 
iiie  strictly  according  to  rules  struck  his  friends  as  one 
ot    the   most   marked   traits  of   his   character;    and 
Borowski  observes  :  "  That  which  was  properly  the 
characteristic  of  Kant,  according  to  the  observation 
ot  all  who  knew  him,  was  his  constant  effort  to  act,  in 
all  things,  m  conformity  with  well-matured  and,  in  his 
estimation  at  least,  well-founded  principles  ;  the  effort 
to  fix,  for  large  and  small,  for  important  and  unim- 
portant  affairs,  maxims  which  were  to  be  referred  to 
constantly,  and  were  always  to  be  the  source  of  con- 
duct.    These  became  so  interwoven  with  himself  that 
he  acted  according  to  them  without  being  conscious 
of  them."     Kant  himself  says,  '^t  is  necessary  for 
our  whole  life  to  be  subjected  to  moral  maxims." 

Owing  to  his  strict  adherence  to  rules,  Kant's  life 
was  remarkably  even  and  regular,  and  was  in  an  un- 
usual degree  the  result  of  rational  self-control.  There 
is  always  grandeur  in  a  life  which  shows  itself  so 
superior  to  inclination  and  passion  and  circumstances, 
and  makes  reason  thiB  supreme  arbiter.     Not  only  in 


320 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


II 


Kant's  philosophy,  but  also  in  his  life,  there  is  much 
that  suggests  the   sage  who  is  immeasurably  superior 
to    creatures  of  circumstances;    and  the  philosophic 
mood  of  his  lonely  career  has  justly  gained  admiration. 
He  had  an  ideal  for  hfe,  as  well  as  for  philosophy, 
and   he   was  stern   and    severe  in   his  efforts  for  its 
realization.     But    with    all    our    admiration    of  the 
wisdom  which  shone  in  his  conduct,  his  effort  to  dis- 
cipline life  into  the  grooves  of  his  maxims  also  had 
its  disadvantages.     The  rules  which  free  a  man  from 
the  control   of    his    inclinations   may   themselves   be 
woven   into    a   strait-jacket,    and   rational   principles 
may  be  carried  to  an  extreme  which  makes  their  ap- 
phcation  irrational.     The  reign  of  maxims  in  Kant's 
case  was   a   logical   deduction  from   his    emotionless 
morality ;    and  their  supremacy  to  an    extent  which 
suppressed  impulse  and  spontaneity  helped  to  rob  his 
life  of  much  of  the  warmth,  freshness,  and  variety, 
which   beautify  even  ordinary   lives,   and  to   limit  it 
methodically  to  wise  but  cold    formulas.     A  cotem- 
porary  said  of  Kant,  "  He  has  made  himself  a  slave 
of  his  reason,  and  unflinchingly  obeys  its  laws."     Al- 
though this  was  intended  as  a  comphment,  the  word 
*'  slave  "  is  too  suggestive  of  something  else.    His  rules 
were,  indeed,   the   result   of  careful  reflection,  often 
embodied  much  wisdom,  and  saved  him  from  many 
mortifying  experiences.     But  why  are   the  emotions 
given  if,  with  and  besides  the  rules,  they  are  to  have 
no  room  for  their  healthy  play  ?     Impulse  and  inclina- 
tion may  be  in  harmony  with  truth  and  right,  and 
may  intensify    all  that  is    noblest  in    man ;    and   to 
banish  or  suppress  them  may  in  some  respects  make 
a  man  more  than  ordinary  humanity,  but  in  others  it 


RATIONAL   CONDUCT. 


321 


will  make  him  less.     It  is  said  that  when  Kant  found 
that  a  maxim  was  no  longer  adapted  to  his  condition 
he  would  change  it,  and  thus  proved    that   he  was 
master  of   his   maxims ;    but  it  is  evident  that  they 
sometimes  gained  the  complete  mastery  over  him,  and 
made  his  life  restrained  and  rigorous,  and  that  at  last 
shght  changes,    even  when  necessary  for  his   health 
and  safety,  were  made  with  extreme  difficulty      His 
mental,  as  well  as  his   moral  and  physical  life,  was 
subjected  tx)  rules,  and  his  career  was  marked  by  an 
almost    unvarying   sameness,    especially  in   his  later 

Jr."'    .P^/^"^^i^g  i«    an  illustration  of  the   fact 
that    with  all  his  power  of  abstraction,  his  mind  was 
much  influenced   by   mechanical    routine.     After  re 
turning  from  his  walk  he  was  in  the  habit  of  reading 
till  twilight.     Then,  in    winter   and   in    summer,    he 
would  stand  before  the  stove  and  fix  his  eyes  on  a 
certain  tower,  while  his  mind  vvas  occupied  with  re- 
flections.     In  the   course   of  time   the   poplars  in   a 
neighbouring  yard  grew  so  high  as  to  hide  his  favourite 
tower.     This  so  disturbed  and  annoyed  him  that  he 
was  anxious  that  the  trees  should  be  topped ;  and  the 
owner  to  gratify  him,  did  as  he  desired,  thus  enabling 
the  philosopher  again  to  pursue  his  meditations  un- 
interruptedly.     This  story  reveals  a  prominent  charac- 
teristic of  Kant,  namely,  the  tendency  to  an  undeviatinc 
sameness.  ^ 

While  he  made  the  free  and  good  will  the  essence  of 
all  morality,  he  nevertheless  thought  it  necessary  to 
prevent  arbitrariness  by  carefully  determining  the 
course  of  conduct  by  means  of  rational  principles  He 
wanted  to  introduce  a  mathematical  exactness  into  the 
activity  of  the  practical  as  well  as  of  the  speculative 


322 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


MAXTMS   AND   MORALITY. 


t  i 


» 


1  . 


reason.  His  moral  pliilosophy  shows  how  pre- 
dominant the  iatellectual  element  was  in  Kant.  The 
will  is  the  practical  reason,  not  in  any  sense  the  heart ; 
its  elements  are  intellectual,  not  emotional ;  and  the 
maxims  give  the  intellectual  grooves  in  which  the  will 
is  to  run.  He  says,  "  Many  persons  have  no  idea  what 
they  want ;  hence  they  act  according  to  instinct  and 
authority."  Men  should  learn  to  know  what  they 
want,  and  this  knowledge  should  be  embodied  in 
maxims  as  the  laws  of  life.  Kant  treats  the  will  as  if 
it  did  not  belong  to  the  whole  man,  but  only  to  the  in- 
tellect ;  and  in  his  morality,  as  well  as  in  his  specula- 
tive philosophy,  the  emotional  element  seems  to  have 
been  absorbed  by  the  intellectual.  Reason,  being  the 
highest,  is  also  the  governing  faculty ;  as  it  gives  the 
principles  of  knowledge,  so  it  also  gives  the  laws  of 
conduct ;  and  Kant  wants  to  make  life,  as  well  as  our 
philosophy,  rational,  insisting  as  strenuously  on  con- 
duct which  has  its  source  in  the  (practical)  reason,  as 
he- does  on  a  philosophy  which  has  its  source  in  the 
(speculative)  reason.  He  regards  as  the  true  life  that 
one  which  translates  reason  into  conduct ;  and  in  this 
fact  we  find  the  explanation  of  his  numerous  maxims. 

"While,  however,  depreciating  the  emotions  in  general, 
Kant  sought  to  attain  that  joy  which  springs  from 
the  consciousness  of  having  done  right.  In  a  letter 
to  Reinhold,  he  speaks  of  jAilosophical  indifference 
respecting  all  things  not  in  our  power,  and  claims  that 
the  consciousness  of  having  done  our  duty  constitutes 
the  real  worthiness  of  life,  and  that  experience  teaches 
us  that  all  other  enjoyment,  except  this  consciousness, 
is  vain.  According  to  Kant,  therefore,  the  real 
grandeur  and  highest  enjoyment  of  life  are  within  the 


323 


reach  of  all,  the  poorest,  the  humblest,  and  tlie 
Illiterate  as  well  as  the  richest,  the  most  exalted,  and 
the  most  learned-a  conclusion  worthy  of  the  areat 
metaphysician  and  the  sublime  moralist  ^ 

Maxims  which  Kant  defines  as  laws  made  subjective 
or  rules  chosen  as  the  guides  of  life,  should  be  taught 
cS  T     .     ,^;f  «"*3^«I^«"W  be  exercised  to  lead  the 
child  to  adopt  them ;  nevertheless  it  should  learn  to 
appreciate  them  and  adopt  them  voluntarily.      Moral 
trammg  must  rest  on  them,  and  he  says,  "One  must 
see  to  ;t  that  the  pupil  does  right  according  to  maxims, 
not  from  habit,  m  order  that  he  may  not  merely  do 
what  IS  good    but  because  it  is  good;  for  the  whole 
moral  worth  of  actions  consists  in  the  good  maxims." 
The  pupil  should  learn  the  grounds  of  his  conduct  and 
recognize  the  idea  of  duty  as  its  source.     Kant  gives 
directions  for  the  training  of  others  in  which  he  reveals 
his  own  laws  of  conduct.     He  says  that  rules,  not  im- 
pulse, ought  to  determine  the  conduct  of  the  young 
Moral  culture  must   be  based  on  maxims,   not   on 

tZtT:  •.  •  ^^'   ^''^   ^^^^^    ^^    ™--l    training 
should  be  to  form  a  moral  character.     Character  con! 

sists  m  skill  to  act  according  to  maxims.     At  first  thev 
are  maxims  of  the  school ;  afterwards  they   become 
those    of    humanity."      When    children    have    once 
adopted  rules  of  conduct,  they  ought  to  follow  them 
strictly.     It  IS  true,  Kant  says,  that  those  are  blamed 
who  always  act  according  to  law,  the  man,  for  instance 
who  has  a  definite  time  for  everything,  as  if  he  were 
regulated    by    the    watch;    yet,     while    such    strict 
adherence  to  time  may  look  painful,  it  is,  nevertheless 
important  in  the  formation  of  character. 
Laxity  was  altogether  foreign  to  Kant's  nature  •  and 

T  2 


w 


n 


4 


» I, 


324 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


.1". 

l 


as  lie  asked  no  mercy  of  others,  so  he  was  not  very 
merciful  in  his  judgments.     Especially  was  he  strict 
in   the  fulfilment   of  promises   to  the  letter,    and  in 
demanding   that   others    should  do  the  same.     Soon 
after  he  became  a  tutor,  a  student  promised  to  bring 
him  the  pay  for  his  lectures  at  a  certain  time.     When 
the   appointed   hour  came,  and  the  student  did  not 
appear,    Kant   was    restless    aiid   greatly    displeased, 
telling  two  friends  who  were  present,  that  it  was  not 
for  the  sake  of  the  money  but  because  a  definite  pro- 
mise had  been  given;  and  every  fifteen  minutes  he 
would  again  speak  of  the  fact  that  the  young  man  did 
not  appear.     When  he   made  his  appearance,  a  few 
days  later,  he  received  a  severe  rebuke;  requesting 
permission  to  take  part  in  a  disputation  which  was  to 
occur  soon,  Kant  refused,  saying,  *'  You  might  again 
break  your  word  and  not  appear  at  the  discussion,  and 
thus  spoil  everything." 

Kant  associated  mostly  with  those  who  had  com- 
paratively few  wants,  and  did  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  great  sufferings  of  humanity ;  it  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  if  his  sympathies  were  but  little  developed. 
His  wonderful  power  of  will  in  controlling  his  own 
sufferings,  his  great  endurance,  and  his  successful  con- 
flict with  poverty  and  difficulties,  led  him  to  expect  of 
others  similar  power  and  triumphs  ;  and  he  looked  with 
a   degree  of  contempt  on   those  who   failed.     If  he 
depreciated  the  sympathies  which  Christianity  particu- 
larly develops,  he  cherished  sentiments  worthy  of  the 
noblest  of  the  old  Roman  heroes,  and  there  is  a  grandeur 
in  his  stoicism.     It  seems  as  if  we  hear  a  Spartan  voice 
when  he  says,  ''  A  man  must  never  weep  other  than 
magnanimous  tears.     Those  which  he  sheds  in  pain,  or 


MORAL    STERNNESS. 


325 


on  account  of  misfortune,  make  him  despicable 'Y'") 
1  he  same  spirit  breathes  in  his  maxim,  "  Crying  and 
moaning  i^n  physical  pain  are  unworthy  of  you 
especially  if  you  are  conscious  of  being  yourself  the 
cause  of  the  pain."  The  nature  of  his  studies  and  the 
character  of  his  life  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
judging  of  his  relation  to  others.    Rink,  who  knew  him 

Zt'   Tu'/f'  ^^'^'^   ^^'  ^^^^«   «*^dy;  and  eyen 
when  he  had  obseryed  men  with  a  sharp  eye,  he  trans- 
ferred the^esults  of  his  obseryation  to  the  school,  and 
judged  others  as  seyerely  as  he  did  himself.     In  doine 
this,    he    naturally  oyerlooked   the    impossibility    of 
appreciating  the  stand-point  of  others  as  fuUy  as  his 
own,  or  as  one  at  least  believes  that  he  appreciates  his 
own    so  that  the  severity  supposed  to  be  just  may 
easily  degenerate  into  slight  injustice.     And  thus    I 
be  .eve  It  may  be  explained  that  Kant,  when  he  once 
believed  himself  justified  in  forming  an  unfavourable 
opinion   of   any   one,  seldom  or   never   changed  it " 
And  he  also  says,  «  The  isolated  life  which  Kant  had 
always  lived,  together  with  his  limited  wants,  led  him 
either  entirely  to  overlook  much  in  the  life  of  other 
persons,  or  else  at  least  to  under-estimate  it.     Other- 
wise, I  am  convinced,  it  would  be  possible  to  relate 
many    more  noble   deeds   of  him   than   can  now  be 
done." 

In  spite  of  the  severity  of  his  principles  and  the 
efforts  to  suppress  his  emotional  nature,  his  life 
furnishes  numerous  examples  of  genuine  kindness 
and  at  times  he  was  even  tender.  Kant  was  better 
than  his  principles,  in  this  respect,  and  his  heart  some- 
times transcended  his  philosophy.  It  may  seem  to  be 
a  contradiction,  but  the  testimony  of  his  friends  makes 


f    I 


326 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


I| 


II 


» 


i 


it  evident  that,  in  spite  of  his  maxims,  which  excluded 
impulse,  and  of  his  cold  morality,  he  remained  child- 
like ;  and  though  he  was  not  able  to  place  himself  on 
the  stand-point  of  the  masses,  he  repeatedly  proved  that 
he  could  be  moved  by  the  needs  of  others.  He  was 
not  an  impulsive  or  sentimental  philanthropist,  and 
(though  the  statements  on  this  point  are  contradic- 
tory) the  most  reUable  testimony  declares  that  he 
could  not  tolerate  beggars ;  still,  he  won  many  hearts 
by  his  good  and  kind  deeds. 

Kant  has  justly  been  admired  for  his  uprightness  and 
his  sterling  integrity.     He  not  only  taught  the  Cate- 
gorical Imperative,  but  he  also  strove  to  conform  his 
life  to  it,  and  he  was  above  petty  meanness  and  selfish- 
ness.   He  made  strenuous  efforts  to  attain  the  strictest 
morality  in  his  dealings  with  others,  and  his  life  was 
singularly  free  from  injustice  and  immorality.     "  Kant 
lived  as  he  taught,"  was  said  of  him  while  still  alive, 
and  since  then  it  has  been  rejjeated  frequently,  and 
efforts  have  not  been  wanting,  on  the  part  of  devout 
disciples,  to  ascribe  to  his  doctrine  and  his  life  a  perfec- 
tion which  the  unbiased  critical  student  may  fail  to  find; 
but  the  very  extravagance  of  the  praise  heaped  on  Kant 
shows  what  a  profound  impression  his  exalted  character 
made  on  some  of  his  contemporaries.     Though  he  did 
not   attain  his   own  ideal  of  perfection,  his  earnest 
desire  and  even  anxiety  to  do  so  are  worthy  of  all  com- 
mendation ;  and  he  deserves  enthusiastic  praise  who 
so  loved  duty  as  to  declare,  "  Whoever  will  yet  pro- 
pose to  me  a  good  deed  in  my  last  moments,  him  will  I 
thank." 

Truthfulness  was  regarded  by  Kant  as  the  cardinal 
virtue,  and  on  it  he  laid  the  strongest  emphasis.     He 


TRUTHFULNESS. 


327 


brought  tins  trait  from  his  early  home,  in  which  this 
wtue  reigned,  and  where  his  father  was  most  careful  to 
mculcateit  Kant  esteemed  lying  inexpressibly  base. 
His  usua  strictness  is  seen  in  his  very  definition  of  a 

Sr^T  JT  ''  ^T""""''^  ^'  *^"«  ^^^^^  «^«  knows 
that  It  IS  false,  and  whenever  a  man  announces  as 

certain  that  of  which  he  is  not  certain.  In  his  "  Peda! 
gogics  he  speaks  of  truthfulness  as  the  fundamental 
and  most  essential  trait  of  character,  and  says,  "A 
man  who  lies  has  no  character  at  all  ;  and  if  he  has 
anything  good,  it  emanates  only  from  his  temperament:" 
and  he  also  says,  « Lying  makes  a  man  an  object  of 

hfr'f.rf '""P^"^*^  ^'  "^^  ""^  '^'  '^'^^'  °f  robbing 
him  of  that  regard  and  confidence  which  each  person 

should  have  toward  himself."  So  strict  is  he  in 
demanding  truthfulness,  that  he  will  tolerate  no  de- 
viation, not  even  in  the  extremest  cases.  There  were 
others  who  advocated  the  view  that  in  dealino-  with 
persons  we  must  take  into  account  the  qu'estion 
whether  they  are  entitled  to  know  the  truth.  Kant 
however,  claimed  that  truthfulness  is  a  duty  which  I 
owe  myself,  irrespective  of  my  relation  to  others ;  and 
he  held  that  we  have  no  right  to  deceive  even  the 
murderer  who  seeks  to  take  the  life  of  our  friend 

Truthfulness  was  a  prominent  trait  of  his  own  cha- 
racter. In  his  researches,  his  aim  was  the  truth  in 
Its  purity ;  hence  his  dread  of  prejudice  and  his  long  and 
profound  investigations  to  find  a  firm  basis  for  know- 
ledge.  His  friends  make  special  mention  of  his  strict 
adherence  to  the  truth,  and  Borowski's  testimony  is 
He  was  reliable  and  truthful  in  every  word,  and  taught 
me,  while  yet  a  youth,  with  solemn  earnestness,  to  be 
reliable  and  truthful  and  candid,  just  as  he  was  and 


/    I 


328 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


EMOTIONAL    ELEMENT. 


329 


continued  to  be."  To  this  general  rule,  Borowski 
himself  found  a  single  exception,  which  will,  however, 
be  mentioned  in  considering  Kant's  religious  views. ('^^ 

He,  of  course,  made  a  distinction  between  truth- 
fulness and  candour,  and  held  that,  while  a  man  ought 
always  to  be  truthful,  he  need  not  tell  all  he  thinks 
or  knows,  but  must  be  his  own  judge  of  the  extent  of 
his  frankness.  There  may  be  many  reasons  for  with- 
holding facts  or  convictions  from  the  public,  and 
perfect  frankness  might  be  a  great  evil.(^'^) 

His  aversion  to  flattery  and  to  unmeaning  compli- 
ments was  but  a  reflex  of  his  love  of  truth.  The  fact 
that  empty  and  ostentatious  ceremonies  and  fulsome 
praise  were  so  common  in  society,  made  it  the  more  a 
duty,  to  oppose  them  vigorously.  He  disliked  the 
parade  of  titles,  and  usually  omitted  his  from  the  title- 
page  of  his  books.  After  he  had  attained  to  years  of 
maturity,  he  found  extravagant  compliments  in  dedi- 
cations disagreeable,  though  in  his  first  attempt  at 
authorship  he  was  guilty  of  the  very  thing  he  after- 
wards so  severely  censured.  (^^^)  With  his  views  of 
the  dignity  of  man,  he  could  only  look  on  everything 
like  cringing  as  degrading,  and.it  was  one  of  his  maxims, 
"  Do  not  become  a  servant  of  men ;  do  not  let  others, 
with  impunity,  trample  your  rights  under  foot."  He 
placed  a  high  estimate  on  self-respect  and  self-confi- 
dence, and  opposed  all  that  tended  to  lower  them ; 
hence  the  importance  which  he  attached  to  the  feehng 
of  independence,  individually  as  well  as  politically. 

That  moral  perfection  which  some  of  his  eulogists 
ascribed  to  him,  Kant  himself  would  have  been  the 
first  to  disclaim.  With  all  his  self-confidence,  and 
with  all  the  purity  of  his  motives,  he  knew  full  well 


that  he  was  human ;  and  he  was  too  keen  an  observer 
of  self  not  to  see  some  of  the  faihngs  which  those  who 
were  intimate  with  him  did  not  fail  to  discover. 
Profound  and  learned  as  he  was,  and  earnestly  as  he 
strove  to  do  his  duty,  his  isolated  student-life,  his 
limited  experience,  and  his  predominantly  intellectual 
development,  were  certainly  not  calculated  to  make 
him  great-hearted.  He  placed  the  speculative  and 
the  practical  reason  upon  the  throne :  and  in  speak- 
ing of  his  intellectual  greatness  and  of  his  moral 
grandeur,  rare  praise  can  be  bestowed  on  him  without 
danger  of  flattery.  The  heart  was  not  his  domain ; 
in  the  emotions  his  sphere  w^as  limited  ;  many  of  the 
affairs  of  humanity  were  altogether  foreign  to  him, 
while  others  touched  him  only  externally.  The  breadth 
of  sympathy  developed  by  personal  suffering  was 
unknown  to  him,  and  he  was  a  stranger  to  the  emotions 
fostered  by  family  ties.  When  we  look  at  his  character 
as  a  whole,  we  admire  its  moral  earnestness  and  even 
sternness,  its  sincerity,  and  its  general  excellence; 
but  he  himself  was  too  suspicious  of  the  emotions  to 
desire  to  inspire  any  enthusiasm  with  reference  to  his 
own  heart. 

Kant's  moral  severity  was  in  marked  contrast  with 
the  prevailing  laxity.  The  undermining  of  faith  in 
Germany  had  prepared  the  way  for  the  contagion  of 
French  frivolity.  In  their  thirst  for  happiness,  men 
lost  sight  of  the  claims  of  morality,  or  sought  to  make 
them  minister  to  their  ruling  passion.  The  low  tone 
of  morals  made  the  sublime  height  of  Kant's  ethics 
the  more  conspicuous.  The  prevailing  views  may  have 
led  him  to  make  his  morality  the  more  stern  and  to 
exclude  from  it  all  emotion,  so  as  the  more  success- 


M 


^  I 


330 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


RELIGIOUS    VIEWS. 


331 


\    fully   to  reject  all  endaemonism.     But  Kant  himself 
brought  in   happiness   again    as    necessary  for   the 

t    realization  of  the  highest  good. 

"  The  religious  as  well  as  the  moral  views  of  Kant 
V  are  based  on  the  results  of  the  "  Kritik,"  and  they 
rest  solely  on  the  practical,  not  on  the  speculative 
reason.  We  are  conscious  of  our  freedom ;  we  cannot 
go  behind  this  fact,  nor  is  it  necessary.  "  You  can, 
for  you  ought,'^  an  expression  which  is  often  used  by 
him,  settles  the  matter ;  the  fact  that  there  is  an  ought 
implies  freedom,  without  which  there  could  be  no 
responsibility.  Speculatively,  freedom  itself  is  an  in- 
soluble mystery ;  but  whatever  the  immediate  causes 
of  moral  conduct  may  be,  its  ultimate  source  is  the 
spontaneity  of  the  actor. 

This  primal  and  indisputable  fact  of  man's  freedom 
is  the  basis  of  Kant's  theology,  as  well  as  of  his  ethics. 
Conscience,  which  rests  on  this  fact,  demands  per- 
fection, namely  holiness ;  but  that  is  not  attainable  in 
this  life.  Since,  however,  it  is  demanded  of  us,  it 
mast  also  be  practicable,  and  Kant  again  uses  the 
argument,  ''  You  ought,  therefore  you  can."  But 
since  holiness  is  not  practicable  here,  it  must  be  in 
another  life  where  there  is  an  eternal  progress  toward 
the  realization  of  this  ideal.  The  highest  good,  of 
which  the  perfect  conformity  of  the  disposition  with 
the  moral  law  is  the  first  condition,  is  therefore  pos- 
sible only  if  there  is  another  life ;  and  the  immortality 
of  the  soul  is  the  first  postulate  of  the  practical  reason. 
But  the  realization  of  the  highest  good,  namely,  the 
perfect  harmony  between  moral  worthiness  and  happi- 
ness, or  the  bestowal  of  happiness  according  to  desert, 
cannot  be  accomplished  by  nature,  nor  by  virtue  itself; 


1 
and  yet  our  nature  demands  that  our  happiness  should 
be  proportionate  to  our  virtue.  Therefore  it  can  be 
accomphshed  only  in  another  world,  and  by  a  Being 
not  subject  to  nature,  but  which  can  reward  according 
to  moral  desert,  namely,  God.  The  existence  of  God 
is  therefore  the  second  postulate  of  the  practical 
reason.  (^^^) 

Kant  declares  that  these  postulates  must  not  be 
used  speculatively,  as,  for  instance,  to  account  for  the 
origin  of  the  world  and  of  design  in  nature,  though 
the  existence  of  God  would  be  the  most  satisfactory 
explanation  of  these  problems.  He  is  extremely 
cautious  in  the  application  of  these  postulates,  and 
insists  that  they  can  be  used  only  for  practical  pur- 
poses, but  for  these,  he  thinks,  they  are  entirely 
suflBcient. 

Both  in  laying  the  foundation  of  rational  theology 
and  in  building  a  superstructure  on  it,  we  find  that 
Kant  went  his  own  way.  Not  that  he  is  free  from 
the  influences  of  the  age;  but  he  sought  to  master 
and  concentrate  its  various  tendencies,  and  he  gave 
them  a  new  basis  and  a  new  direction.  After  turning 
with  aversion  from  the  religious  influences  of  his  youth, 
he  still  found  many  tendencies  in  the  age  which  were 
anything  but  congenial  to  his  rationalizing  spirit.  On  \ 
the  one  hand,  he  found  religious  extravagance  and 
fanaticism,  and  some  of  his  severe  expressions  against 
the  religion  of  the  day  are  probably  aimed  at  this 
tendency ;  on  the  other,  there  was  religious  as  well  as 
moral  indifference,  or  even  decided  hostility  towards 
religion.  The  age  demanded  tolerance,  fraternity, 
humanity,  reason  ;  and  many  of  their  apostles  sought 
the  promotion  of  these  objects  with  a  passion  which 


\ 


ft! 


332 


THE   LIFE  OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


made  them  intolerant  and  fanatical.     The  old  forms  of 
faith  were  looked  upon  as   fetters ;  the   preaching  of 
the  times  neither  satisfied  the  restlessness  of  the  age 
nor  met  the  demands  of  reason ;  orthodoxy  became 
hateful,    because    it    was    regarded   as    narrow    and 
intolerant,   and  as  lacking  the  fraternal  and  humane 
spirit.     English  deism  and   French  naturalism  found 
a  congenial  soil  among  men  of  culture  in  Germany, 
and   Illumination  became   the   watchword   of    litera- 
ture.    Kant  felt  the  influence  of  these  tendencies,  and 
in  his  religious  views  the  effect  of  English  deism  and 
of  Lessing's  rationalizing  efforts  is  clearly  seen.     When 
we  consider  the  influence  of  the  English  natural  philo- 
sophers on  his  early  life,  it  is  not  surprising  that  there 
are  traces  of  deism  already  in  his  cosmogony.     It  is 
natural  that  his  fondness  for   Hume   should  subject 
him   to   the   religious,   as    well   as    the   philosophical 
influence   of  the   sceptical  philosopher.      Among   the 
French  authors,  Rousseau's  influence   was  especially 
powerful.     In  considering  Kant's   religious  views,  it 
should   be   remembered   that   he  lived   in  the  age  of 
Voltaire    and    of   the    French    Encyclopedists ;    that 
literature  was  predominantly  sceptical ;  that  the  reaction 
against  a  religious  dogmatism,  which  had  often  been 
narrow  and  oppressive,  had  made  Frederick  II.  and 
Joseph    11.    popular   heroes    of  tolerance ;  and   that 
instead  of  a  religion  based  on  revelation  and  on  doc- 
trines transcending  reason,  there  was  a  cry  for  religion 
based  on  common  sense.     The  age  which  hailed  with 
delight  Lessing's  "  Nathan  the  Wise,"  had  no  taste  for 
dogma  or  for  orthodoxy. 

To  form  a  correct  estimate  of  Kant's  theology  and 
of  his  originality  in  its  development,  we  must  view 


RATIONALISM. 


333 


him  as  he  stands  amid  the  fermentations  of  the  age, 
both  receiving  its  leaven  and  also,  in  turn,  giving  it 
new   leaven.      While  in   many  respects  his  religious 
views  were  a  product  of  the  age,  he  was  too  profound 
and  too  earnest  to  treat  religion  with  the  flippancy 
which  was  the  fashion  among  many   of  his  contem-/ 
poraries.     He  viewed  religion  as  involving  too  manyj 
interests  of  humanity  for  such  treatment ;  and   there 
were  in   him  moral   and  religious  aspirations,  deve- 
loped no  doubt  by  Pietism,  which  demanded  satisfac- 
tion, and  made  religion  to  him  a  serious  matter.  Kant! 
places  much  emphasis  on  the  demands  of  our  nature,'' 
and  frequently  refers  to  them,  and  he  could  not  regard 
as  satisfactory  any  system  which  fails  to  meet  them. 
The   frivolous,    irresolute    Voltaire,    swinging  like  a 
pendulum  between  deism  and  materialism ;  the  senti- 
mental  deism   of  his   favourite  Rousseau;    and   the 
scepticism    in  which  Hume  seemed  content  to  rest, 
could  no  more  satisfy  the  needs  of  his  deep  nature 
than  could  the  shallow  and  illogical  Illumination  of 
Germany,    which     labelled      its     heterogeneous     and 
chaotic  mass  of   opinions  "Common  Sense."     Kant 
saw  that  in  many   cases  this  latter   tendency  might 
with  more  propriety  be  called  vulgar  sense ;  and  he 
wanted    something    which    transcended  this,  namely 
rationality.      The   tendency   also    lacked    the   moral 
earnestness  which  he   sought.      It  apphed  historical 
criticism,  which  had  received   a  great  impulse  from 
Semler,  but  it  was    chiefly   negative   in  its   results; 
Kant  shifted  the  ground  from  history  to   reason,  and 
from  historical  to  rational  criticism.     While  there  was 
much  similarity  between  his  religious  views  and  the 
prevalent  English  deism,  he  went  deeper,  and  made 


!*( 


334 


THE   LIFE  OP  IMMANUEr,  KANT. 


conscience,  duty,  and  morality  more  s  ern  thjn  was 
usually  the  case  with  deists ;  but  the  chief  difference 
consisted  in  this  :  that  whUe  they  rejected  the  possi- 
bilitv  of  revelation,  Kant  maintained  that  a  revelation 
may  be  possible,  and  he  made  an  effort  to  attach  his 
relidous  views  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament ;  and  though  the  similarity  is  generally  only 
that  of  the  terminology,  he  claimed  that  his  theology 
was  the  essence  of  the  teachings  of  that  book.     What- 
ever  analogies  there  maybe  between  his  views  and  the 
systems  mentioned,  none  of  these  names  designate  his 
theology,  which  he  himself  called  Rationalism.     In  the 
Kantian  sense,  this  means  that  reason  is  the  source 
and  interpreter  of  religion,   and    therefore  the   final 

appeal  in  theology. 

Some  of  his  definitions  are  significant  and  will  help 
us  to  understand  his  own  position.     He  who  regards 
natural  religion  as  the  only  one  that  is  obligatory,  may 
be  called  a  rationalist.     If  he  denies  the  possibihty  of 
a  supernatural  revelation,  he  is  called  a  naturalist ;  if 
he  admits  its  possibility,  but  declares  that  for  religion 
it  is  not  necessary  to  know  and  accept  a  revelation, 
he  may  be  called  a  pure  rationalist ;  but  if  he  regards 
faith  in  it  as  necessary  for  the  universal  religion,  he 
may  be  called  a  pure  supernaturalist.     Kant  himself 
was  a  pure  rationalist.     As  the  very  name  implies  a 
rationahst  is  one  who  moves  within  the  limits  of  the 
reason,  and  regards  its  light  as  sufficient  for  a  know- 
ledge of  religious  truth  and  for  practical  gmdanceC    ) 
But  just  because  he  confines  himself  to  the  hmits  of 
human  knowledge,  he  will  never  deny  the  possibility 
of  a  revelation,  nor  its  necessity  as  the  divme  means 
for  the    introduction   of   the   true  religion,  because 


KEVELATION. 


336 


these  are  subjects  concerning  which  reason  determines 
nothing.      The   admission    which   Kant    thus   makes 
respecting  the   possibility  of  a  divine  revelation,  is, 
however,  of  no  practical  value,  for  he  declares  that 
even  if  one  had  been  given,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
determine  that  it  is  a  supernatural  revelation.     "  Even 
if  God  did  speak  to  him,  man  could  never  know  that 
it  was  God  who  spoke.     It  is  utterly  impossible  for( 
man  to  recognize  God  with  his  senses,  to  distinguish  1 
Him  from  objects  of  sense,  or  to  know  Him  by  any  ' 
marks   whatever."     A  revelation  would  be  valuable  ' 
only  because  it  gave  truth  sooner  than  reason,  which 
can,  however,  discover  the  same  in  the  course  of  time 
— one  of  the  many  views  in  which  Kant  agrees  with 
Lessing.     He  does  not  admit  that  a  revelation  gives 
any  doctrines  which  are  above  reason,  for  his  principle, 
that  all  the  doctrines  of  religion  must  be  rational, 
excludes  all  super-rational  doctrines.  '/ 

It  is  one  of  his   favourite  notions  that  a  rational 
rehgion  is  the  only  one  which  can  be  general,  and  for 
'this  reason   he  repeats  the  statement  so  often.     He 
thinks  that  a  religion  which  rests  on  revelation  should 
always  tend  more  and  more  to  become  rational ;  and 
that,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  church  which  is  based 
on  a  revelation  should  be  able  to  dispense  altogether 
with  historical  faith,  and  will  do  so  when  it  has  be- 
come a  rational  church.     Indeed,  he  declares   that  it 
is  the  most  senseless  thing  imaginable  to  make  a  faith 
based  on  history  the  condition  of  salvation ;  and  he 
repeatedly  treats  the  historical  element  in  religion  as 
unworthy  of  notice.     He  says,  in  a  letter  to  Jacobi, 
that  the  question  whether  reason,  in  order  to  get  the 
idea  of  theism,  could  have  been  aroused  only  by  some- 


A  1 


336 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT, 


RELf(3I0N    ESSENTIALLY    MORALITV. 


337 


:i! 


thing  taught  in  history,  or  only  through  an  inscru- 
table supernatural  influence,  is  merely  of  secondary 
importance,  since  it  refers  solely  to  the  origin  of  this 
idea.     "  For  it  may  be  admitted  that,  if  the   Gospel 
had  not  first  taught  the    general  moral  laws  in  all 
their  purity,  reason  until  now  would  not  have  appre- 
hended them  so  clearly ;  though,  since  they  are  here 
now,  it  is  possible  to  convince  persons  of  their  correct- 
ness  and   validity   by   means   of  mere   reason."     He 
depended  so  wholly  on  reason,  and  on  a  priori  con- 
structions, that  his  depreciation  of  history  is  charac- 
teristic, and  in  religion,  he  thinks,  it  can  be  dispensed 
with   altogether.     The    Church,    which   is   based   on 
historical  faith,  he  calls  the  Church  Militant,  which 
will  become   the    Church   Triumphant   by  becoming 
rational.     The  leading-strings  of  holy  tradition  and  its 
associations— such  as  statutes  and  observances,  which 
in  their  day  did  good  service—can  be  dispensed  with, 
in  the  course  of  time,  and  at  last  they  even  become 
fetters.     Kant  regards  these  things  as  intended  for 
the  childhood  of  humanity,  and  as  not  adapted  to  the 
age  of  manhood.     When  this  manhood  is  attained,  the 
law,  "which  each   one    gives  himself,"   becomes  his 
guide.     This  law  must  not,  however,  be  regarded  by 
man  as  merely  his  own,  but  also  as  that  of  the  Ruler 
of  the   world,   who   reveals   it   through   the   reason. 
Kant,  of  course,  degrades  the  statutes  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Church  by  making  them  valuable  only  as  aids 
to  the  immature  and   weak;  but   he    was   far   more 
tolerant  than  some  of  the  freethinkers  of  the  day,  who 
were  revolutionary,  and  aimed  to  destroy  the  Bible, 
the  Church,  and  every  vestige  of  worship.     He  held 
that  the  transition  from  a  religion  resting  on  revela- 


tion and  historical  faith  to  rational  religion,  is  not  to 
be  accomplished  by  an  outward  revolution,  but  by 
means  of  rational  convictions.  The  faith  of  a  church 
may  be  tolerated  as  a  vehicle  or  servant  of  reason  ;  in 
other  words,  in  its  most  perfect  development  revelled 
religion  becomes  rationahsm.  (^'^) 

As  faith  and  revelation  thus  culminate  in  rational 
religion,  which  can  almost  dispense  with  the  former 
and  wholly  with  the  latter ;  so  Kant  at  last  lets  all 
religion  culminate  in  a  morality  in  which  the  religious 
element  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.     This  is  evident 
from  his  whole  theology  and  even  from   his  division 
of  religions.     He   claims   that    all  religions  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes— those  which  seek  the  divine 
favour,  and  the  moral  religion  or  the  religion  of  a 
good  life.      According    to  the    former,    man    flatters 
himself  either  that  God  can  make  him  eternally  happy 
without  becoming  a  better  man,  by  forgiving  his  sins, 
or,  if  this  is  not  possible,  that  God  can  make  him 
better  without  any  efPort  on  his  own  part  except  to 
pray  for  it ;  but  since,   before  an  omniscient  Being, 
praying  is  nothing  more  than  wishing,  it  can  accom- 
phsh  nothing ;  for  if  it  could  be  done  by  mere  wishing 
every  person  would  be  good.     This  division  degrades 
all  religions  which  have  a  cultus ;  and  it  is  taken  for 
granted  that  a  religion  cannot  at  the   same  time  have 
a  cultus  and  be  thoroughly  moral.     But  this  separa- 
tion of  worship  from  morahty  is  as  characteristic  of 
him   as  the  attempt  to  let  morality  absorb  religion. 
Kant  puts  Christianity  into  the  second  class,  declaring 
that   it  is  the  only  public  moral  religion  which  has 
ever  existed,  a  religion  which  inspires  the  hope  that 
whatever  more  is  needed  than  man  himself  can  supply 

z 


338 


THE   LIFE   OF  IMMAKUETj  KANT. 


1 

i 

\ 


will  be  granted  from  above.  He  thinks  that  it  is  not 
essential  for  man  to  know  what  aid  God  gives,  but 
that  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  know  what  he  must  do 
in  order  to  make  himself  worthy  of  divine  help. 

So   often  and  emphatically  does   Kant  represent 
religion  as  essentially  morality,  that  his  view  m  this 
respect  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  understandmg 
his  theology.     He  bases  religion  more  on  conscience, 
of  whose  existence  we  are  immediately  conscious,  than 
on  God,  whose  existence  is  only  mediately  known  ;  it 
rests  mainly  on  the  ideas  of  frejedom  and  responsibility, 
and  consists  rather  in  what  man   can  do  for  himself 
than  in  what  God  does  for  him  ;  its  principal  factor  is 
therefore  man,  not  God ;  and  it  is  quite  natural  that, 
with  these  views,  the  supremacy  should  be  given  to 
the  moral  element  in  religion.     Kant  says,  "  In  sub- 
stance—that  is,  with  regard  to  its  object-religion 
does  not  in  the  least  differ  from  morality,  for  it  deals 
with  duties  in  general."     The  idea  of  God,  he  holds, 
is  not  to  inspire  worship,  but  moral  conduct.     "  In 
religion,  all  depends  on  the  actions."     His  idea  of  the 
true  church  is  that  of  an  "  ethical  community,"  as  he 
calls  it,  which  is  based  solely  on  morality,  and  has 
neither  symbols  nor  cultus  ;  and  he  wants  everything 
in  religion  to  have  only  a  moral  aim.     "  Religion  is 
that  faith  which  places  the  essence  of  all  reverence  for 
God  in  the  morality  of  man  ;"  and  the  religion  which 
fails   to   do   this   he   pronounces    heathenism.      "If 
reverence  for  God  is  the  first  aim  to  which  virtue  is 
subjected.  He  is  made  an  idol,  that  is,  He  is  regarded 
as  a  Being  whom  we  dare  not  hope  to  please  by  means 
'     of  a  moral  course  in  this  world,  but  whose  favour  we 
hope  to  gain  by  means  of  adoration  and  flattery ;  then 


i| 


LOVELESS  EBLIGION. 


339 


religion  is  idolatry."     It  is  very  evident  that  Kant  did 
not  believe  in  a  religion  which  unites  the  strictest 
morality  with  the  highest  reverence  and  purest  worship 
He  brings  in  God  as  only  a  moral  help,  and  as  neces-  ' 
sary   to   secure   for   man   that   happiness   which    he 
deserves ;  and,  as  far  as  morality  is  concerned,  God 
could  be  dispensed  with,  since  man  has  in  himself  a 
complete  moral  basis  and  the  only  moral  law  that 
exists  for  him.     The  "ought"  is  really  independent 
of  God ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  on  it  our  faith  in  God 
rests.     Kant's  religion  differs  too  little  from  his  ethics 
to  require  the  divine  Being  as  its  centre  or  its  essence. 
After  postulating  the  existence  of  God,  he  makes  Him 
almost  useless,  except  so  far  as  He  may  be  necessary 
to  supplement  morality  by  rewarding  it  with  happiness. 
The  God  of  Kant  inspires  no  love  and  no  worship ; 
indeed,    he    would   pronounce   Him    an   idol   if   He 
did.(''«) 

f 

Kant  is  as  anxious  to  exclude  from  man's  relation  ^ 
to  God  all  emotion  as  he  is  to  eliminate  all  inclination 
from  morality.    He  regards  the  command  of  Scripture, 
to  love  God  supremely  and  the  neighbour  as  one  does 
himself,  as  in  perfect  harmony  with  a  morality  that  is 
really  loveless.     Love  to  God,  he  says,  as  an  affection 
is  impossible,  because  He  is  not  an  object  of  the  senses ; 
on  the  other  hand,  love  to  man  is,  indeed,  possible,  but 
it  cannot  be  commanded;  ''for  no  man  can  love  any 
one  at  the  command  of  another.     Therefore  it  is  only 
the  practical  love  which  is  meant  in  that  summary  of 
all  laws.     In  this  sense,  to  love  God  signifies  to  do  all 
His  commands  gladly;    and   to   love   the   neighbour 
signifies  to  perform  gladly  all  duties  toward   him." 
Perhaps  this  statement  more  clearly  than  any  other 

z  2 


A     i 


'-'    i 


■> 


340 


TOE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


lili 


indicates  tlie  difference  between  the  Kantian  and 
Christian  morahty.  While  the  latter  demands  abso- 
lute obedience  to  duty,  it  also  regards  God  and  man 
as  persons,  between  whom  a  personal  relation,  espe- 
cially that  of  love,  is  possible ;  and  it  requires  a  state 
of  heart  which  both  loves  and  obeys.  Kant,  however, 
lays  the  emphasis  on  obedience  for  the  sake  of  the 
law  ;  he  seems  to  be  afraid  of  giving  prominence  to  the 
personal  element,  just  as  he  is  afraid  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  heart  into  morahty  and  rehgion.  His  ultimate 
aim  is  a  character  that  is  purely  moral  for  morality's* 
sake ;  while  Christianity  aims  to  develop  a  personality 
that  is  loving,  trustful,  hopeful,  and  holy. 

Admitting,  as  he  did,  that  a  revelation  might  be 
possible  (though  reason  cannot  settle  definitely  whether 
it  is),  he  was   not  prepared  to  reject  the  Scriptures 
altogether  ;  but  as  he  made  reason  and  conscience  the 
supreme  and  only  guides  in  rehgion,  he  could  place  no 
high  estimate  on  anything  which  claimed  to  be  a  reve- 
lation.     The  Bible,  he  thinks,  may  continue  for  a  long 
time  to  be  the  authentic  religious  guide  of  the  masses  ; 
but  it  is  not  needed  by  those  whose  reason  and  con- 
science  are  fully  developed. (^^^)      For  the  existence  of 
the  Church  it  is  necessary,  since  this  institution  con- 
tains many  weak  persons;  but  for  the  existence  of 
religion,  the  Bible  is  not  necessary.     Of  the  Old  Tes- 
tam°ent  he  had  a  low  opinion,  and  he  spoke  of  Judaism 
as  not  at  all  a  religion,  but  as  merely  a  political  insti- 
tution.    The  laws  of  Judaism  he  pronounces  laws  of 
force  merely,  which  apply  only  to  the  outer  conduct, 
and  not  at  all  to  the  moral  purpose ;  and  he  states  that 
even  the  Ten  Commandments  are  intended   "abso- 
lutely "  only  for  external  conduct,  and  not  at  all  for 


SCRIPTUHE   AND   KEASON. 


341 


the  heart.  C^«)  He^  places  the  moral  character  of  the 
New  Testament  inestimably  higher  than  that  of  the 
Old,  and  seeks  to  attach  his  views  to  his  interpretation 
of  the  essence  of  its  teachings. 

Kant's  recognition  of  Scripture  is  purely  a  matter  of 
expedience.     The  state  needs  the  Bible  to  control  the 
people ;  the  masses  need  it,  in  order  that  they,  having 
weak  consciences,  may  recognize  their  duty ;  and  the 
philosopher  finds  it  a  convenient  vehicle  for  conveying 
to  the  people  the  faith  of  reason.     Were  it  rejected,  it 
might  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  put  in  its  place 
another  book  which  would  inspire  as  much  confidence. 
Kant's  principles  of  course  led  him  to  deny  that  the 
Bible  is  authoritative  in  matters  of  religion,  or  that  it 
IS  of  itself  a  safe  guide  in  morals.     It  is  not  held  by 
him  to  be  valuable  for  the  sake  of  its  doctrines  and 
what  may  legitimately  be  inferred  from  them ;  but  its 
value  consists  in  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  confidence 
of  the  people  in  it,  reason  can  use  it  to  interpret  into 
Scripture  its  own  doctrines,  and  can  thus  make  it  the 
means   of   popularizing   rational   faith.      If   any   one 
imagines  that  the  aim  of  the  interpretation  is  to  obtain 
the  real  meaning  of  Scripture,  he  is  no  Kantian  on 
this  point ;  that  book  is  simply  to  be  used  as  a  help 
for  moral  reflections  and  applications,  without  inquiring 
into  the  meaning  which  the  writers  themselves  may 
have  intended  to  convey,  for  about  this  Kant  does  not 
care.     He  claims  that  it  was  the  aim  of  the  sacred 
writers  to  make  better  men,  and  that  the  historical, 
which   contributes  nothing  to  this    end,  is    in   itself 
altogether  a  matter  of  indifference,  and  one  can  regard 
it  as  he  pleases. 

All  the  ingenuity  of  Kant  is  exerted  to  answer  the 


342 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANTJEL   KANT. 


li' 


A 


n  99 


question,  "  How  shall  the  Scriptures  be  interpreted  ? 
Repeatedly,  emphatically,  and  with  various  illustra- 
tions, he  teaches  that  the  interpretation  should  be  such 
as  to  make    Scripture  harmonize  with  the  practical 
reason,  and  that  its  sole  aim  is  to  get  moral  rules  and 
impulses.     The  theoretical  passages  which  transcend 
reason  can  be  interpreted  in  the  interest  of  the  prac- 
tical reason ;  and  all  the  passages  which  are  in  conflict 
with  this  reason  must  be  so  intei-preted.     The  preacher 
must  make  every  passage  of  Scripture  which  he  uses 
minister  to  some  moral  purpose ;  and  if  a  moral  sense 
is  not  found  in  the  passage  itself,  one  must  be  inter- 
preted into  it  or  forced  upon  it ;  and  he  argues  so 
strenuously,  persistently,  and  prolixly  in  favour  of  this 
rule  for  the   very  purpose  of    making  passages  the 
vehicles    of    teachings   which    they  do   not   contain. 
Sometimes  it  may  be  necessary  to  draw  from  a  passage 
the  very  opposite  of  that  which  it  seems  to  teach. 
This  method  of  using  Scripture  is,  he  thinks,  per- 
fectly honest  so  long  as  we  do  not  assert  that  the 
sense  which  we  interpret  into  the  symbols  and  sacred 
books  is  really  intended  to  be  conveyed  by  them,  but 
say  nothing  about  it,  and  only  assume  the  possibility 
\'     of  so  understanding  them.     For  instance,  if  passages 
of  Scripture  make  faith  itself  meritorious,  ''  then  they 
must  be   interpreted    as   if    the   moral    faith,    which 
improves  and  elevates  the  soul  by  means  of  reason, 
were  meant."     Only  when  the  Scriptures  are  inter- 
preted to  suit  our  moral  purposes  are  they  valuable ; 
otherwise    they    are    "practically    empty,    or    even 
^    obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  good.     And  only  then  are 
they  practically  authentic ;  that  is,  God  in  us  is  Him- 
self the  interpreter."     According  to  Kant,  therefore, 


.(■  _ 


MORAL    INTERPRETATION. 


343 


this  interpretation  gives  the  real  will  of  God,  and  he 
says,  "  That  God  who  speaks  through  our  own  (moral, 
practical)  reason  is  an  unerring,  universally  understood 
interpreter  of  His  word,  and  there  absolutely  cannot  be 
any  other  (for  instance,  a  historically)  authenticated 
interpreter  of  His  word,  because  religion  is  purely  an 
affair  of  reason."  And  Kant  calls  his  rule  of  "  moral  " 
interpretation,  "  The  only  evangehcal,  biblical  method 
for  the  instruction  of  the  people  in  the  true,  inner,  and 
universal  religion." 

This  hermeneutical  rule  was  first  announced  in  1793 
in  the  book  entitled,  "  Religion  within  the  Limits  of 
mere  Reason;"  and  in  1798  he  found  it  necessary  to 
explain  the  rule.  He  then  declared  that  it  might  be 
demanded  of  the  interpreter,  whether  he  was  inter- 
preting authentically  or  doctrinally ;  if  the  former, 
then  he  must  explain  the  sense  of  the  writer ;  if  the 
latter,  then  he  can  put  into  the  passage  under  con- 
sideration his  own  rational  views,  whether  found  there 
or  not.  He  still  calls  this  art  of  interpretation, 
"  Hermeneutica  sacra." 

Surprising  as  it  may  seem,  there  were  many  ra- 
tionalistic theologians  who  i\dopted  this  rule  ;  and  in 
an  age  when  many  ministers  found  their  convictions  in 
conflict  with  the  Scriptures,  it  was  very  convenient. 
There  were,  however,  other  theologians  who  saw  in 
it  a  sacrifice  of  principle  to  expediency,  and  who 
thought  it  would  be  more  honest  boldly  to  reject 
Scripture  than  to  profess  adherence  to  it  and  yet  reject 
its  real  teachings.  Men  like  Eichhora,  Noesselt,  Storr, 
and  many  others,  protested  against  the  rule  m  the 
interest  of  truth  as  well  as  out  of  regard  for  Scripture. 
Not  only  was  the  honesty  of  the  rule  questioned,  but 


t        ! 


34t 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


m 


it  was  also  seen  that  it  opened  the  way  for  every  one 
to  put  his  own  supposed  moral  views,  however  irra- 
tional  or  fanatical  they  might  be,  into  Scripture  ;  and 
there  was  no  sufficient  reason  why  the  Koran  or 
some  other  book  might  not,  under  certain  circum- 
stances,  be  made  the  basis  of  religion,  since  the 
Scripture  is  not  the  only  work  which  ministers  can  use 
as  a  depository  for  their  moral  ideas. 

Even  before  he  announced  this  hermeneutical  rule 
he  advocated  a  distinction  between  the  official  or  public 
use  of  reason  audits  private  exercise,(''0  which  is  not 
less  strange  than  his  moral  interpretation  of  Scripture. 
He  says,  "  A  minister  is  bound  to  instruct  his  cate- 
chumens and  members  according  to  the  creed  of  the 
church  he  serves,  for  it  is  on  this  condition  that  he 
has  been  accepted.     But  as  a  scholar  he  has  perfect 
freedom ;  yes,  it  is  even  his  calling  to  communicate  to 
the  public  all  his  carefully  considered  and  beneficial 
thoughts  respecting  the  faults  in  that  creed,  and  he 
should  also  publish  plans  for  the  better  organization  of 
religious  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.     There  is  in  this 
course  nothing  which  can  burden  the  conscience.     For 
what  he  teaches  by  virtue  of  his  office,  as  the  agent 
of  his  church,  that  he  teaches  as  something  respecting 
which  it  is  not  in  his  power  to  give  instruction  as  he 
thinks,  but  he  should  teach  what  he  is  commissioned 
to  do  in  the  name  of  another.  He  will  say,  '  Our  church 
teaches  this  or  that  doctrine,  and  these  are  the  proofs 
it  uses.'     He  will  draw  all  the  practical  lessons  for  his 
congregation  from  dogmas  which  he  himself  cannot 
subscribe  with  a  full  conviction  of  their  truth,  but 
which  he  can  teach,  since  it  is  not  altogether  impossible 
that  truth  may  be  concealed   therein ;  at  all  events, 


rUBLIO   AND    PRIVATE    USE    OP    REASON. 


345 


there  is  in  them  nothing  which  opposes  inner  religion. 
For  if  he  believed  the  latter  to  be  the  case,  then  he 
could  not  perform  his  work  conscientiously ;  he  would 
have  to  abandon  his  office.     The  use  which  a  minister 
makes  of  his  reason  before  his  congregation  is  only  a 
private  use,  because  this  is  always  a  family  gathering, 
however  large  it  may  be ;  and  respecting  it,  he,  as  a 
minister,  is  not  free  and  dare  not  be,  for  he  executes 
a  foreign  commission.     On  the  other  hand,  as  a  scholar, 
who  through  his  writings  speaks  to  what  is,  properly 
speaking,  the  public,  namely,  to  the  world,  he  is  a 
minister  in  the  public  use  of  his   reason,  and  he  has 
unlimited  freedom  to  exercise  his  reason  and  to  speak 
in  his  own  name  ;  for  that  the  spiritual  leaders  of  the 
people  should  themselves  be  dependent,  is  an  incon- 
sistency  which  would    tend  to    make   inconsistencies 
eternal." 

That  the  same  reason  can  have  its  public  and  its 

private  use,  and  can  be  so  different  in  its  teachings, 

and  even  contradictory ;  that  in  the  one  case  it  is  free 

and  speaks  in  its  own  name,  and  in  the  other  it  is  not 

free,   but  speaks  in  the  name  of  another ;    that   the 

minister  may  teach  one  thing  in  the  pulpit,  and  yet  in 

books  teach  something  else— this  certainly  is  a  strange 

doctrine  for  a  strict  moralist.     It  puts  the  preacher  on 

a  level  with  a  political  ambassador  who  is  supposed  to 

represent  the  views  of  another,  whatever  his  own  may 

be.     Kant  evidently  had  such  a  view  of  the  office  of 

the  ministry,  a  view  which  may  have  been  promoted 

by  the  union  of  church  and  state.     According  to  the 

modern  and  more  independent  position  of  ministers,  his 

rule  respecting  the  public  and  the  private  use  of  reason 

puts  expediency  where  principle  should  reign  supremely. 


346 


THE   LIFE   OF  IMMANUEL  KANT. 


CHRIST   A   PERSONIFIED   IDEA. 


347 


iffil 


11^: 


^        Though  he  interpreted  Scripture  so  as  to  make  it  har- 
monize with  the  practical  reason,  Kant  made  a  constant 
effort  to  clothe  his  religious  ideas  in  biblical  language. 
He  thinks  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  has  no  prac- 
tical value  whatever,  and  that  it  is  a  matter  of  no  signifi- 
cance whether  there  are  three  or  ten  persons  in  the 
Godhead,  since  both  views  are  equally  inconceivable 
and  equally  useless.     Nevertheless  he  holds  that  the 
practical  reason  requires  faith  in  God :  first,  as  the 
Almighty  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  that  is,  viewed 
morally,  as  the  Holy  Lawgiver ;  second,  as  the  Pre- 
server of  the  human  family,  or  as  a  Gracious  Ruler  and 
Moral  Maintainer  of  the  same ;  third,  as  the  Adminis- 
trator of  His  own  holy  laws,   that  is,  as  the  Righteous 
Judge.     Kant  beUeves  that  God  wants  to  be  served  in 
these  three  aspects,  and  that  the  idea  of  a  trinity  of 
persons    in    the    Godhead   is    not   an    inappropriate 
representation  of  God's  threefold  relation  to  us  as  moral 

beings. 

For  Kant,  Christ  has  significance  only  as  an  idea, 
and  this  idea  he  constructs  according  to  his  view  of 
the  demands  of  reason.     The  section,  in  his  book  on 
Religion,  in  which  he  discusses  this  subject  is  headed, 
"  The  Personified  Idea  of  the  Good  Principle."     He 
claims  that  the  only  thing  which  could  have  made  the 
world  an  object  of  the  divine  counsel  and  which  gives 
an  aim  worthy  of  creation,  is  humanity  in  its  entire 
moral  perfection.     The  man  who   alone  is  pleasing  to 
God  "is  in  Him  from  all  eternity  ;"  that  is,  this  man 
as  an  idea  and  as  the  aim  of  creation  is  in  the  divine 
mind— God  has  a  conception  of  such   a  being;  this 
ideal  being  is,  therefore,  not  created,  but  is  God's  only 
begotten  Son.     Since  all  things  are  created  for  this 


perfect,  ideal  man,  he  is  the  Word  (the  Logos)  by 
whom  "  all  things  were  made ;  and  without  Him  was 
not  anything  made  that  was  made."  This  perfect  man 
is  the  reflection  of  God's  glory ;  in  Him  God  loved  the 
world ;  and  only  in  Him  and  by  accepting  His  views 
can  men  become  the  children  of  God.  In  the  whole 
discussion  of  the  subject  this  perfect  man  is  viewed  by 
Kant  as  a  mere  ideal  of  humanity ;  and  He  is  the  Son 
of  God  in  the  sense  that  this  ideal  had  its  birth  in  the 
divine  mind.  For  the  sake  of  this  idea  the  world  was 
made,  and  for  this  reason  it  may  be  said  that  by  this 
ideal  man  all  things  were  made. 

This  idea  of  moral  perfection,  called  Christ  by  Kant, 
is  the  prototype  of  perfect  purity,  and  is  placed  before 
us  as  an  ideal  which  each  person  ought  to  strive  to 
realize.     The  idea  itself,  "  which  reason  presents  to  us 
for  imitation,"   can  give  us   the  power  necessary  for 
this  imitation.     But  since  we  are  not  the  originators 
of  this  idea,  and  as  it  has  taken  root  in  man  when 
there  is  no  possibility  of  our  understanding  how  he 
could  be  receptive  for  such  an  idea,  "  it  is  better  to 
say  that  this  prototype  came  down  to  us  from  heaven, 
namely,  that  it  became  incarnate."      The  union  of  this 
ideal  of  perfect  humanity  with  man  may  be  regarded 
as  a  condescension  on  the  part  of  the  Son  of  God,  if 
this  divinely  inclined  person,  who,  being  holy,  was  not 
obhged  to  undergo  suffering,  is  viewed  as  nevertheless 
taking  upon  Himself  the  greatest   suffering   for  the 
benefit  of  the  world.     We  cannot  conceive  of  this  ideal 
of  humanity  otherwise  than  under  the  idea  of  a  man 
who  not  only  performs  every  duty  and  promotes  good 
to  the  utmost,  but  who  also,  in  spite  of  the  greatest 
temptations,  is  ready  to  submit  to  all  suffering,  even 


348 


THE    LIFE    OF    TMMANUEL    KANT. 


PRACTICAL    VALUE    OP    THE    GOSPEL. 


349 


to  the  most  disgraceful  death,  for  the  welfare  of  the 
world  and  even  for  His  enemies ;  for  it  is  only  when 
we  conceive  of  a  power  as  in  conflict  with  difficulties 
and  temptations,  that  we  get  an  idea  of  its  greatness. 
In  this  discussion  Kant  forcibly  proves  his  confi- 
dence in  the  miraculous  power  of  a  mere  idea.  He 
regards  this  as  Christ's  significance  for  man :  by  prac- 
tical faith  in  this  Son  of  God  (or  in  this  perfect  idea 
of  man)  a  person  may  hope  to  be  acceptable  to  God 
and  to  be  saved ;  that  is,  as  Kant  explains  it,  he  who 
is  conscious  of  such  a  moral  purpose  as  to  be  able  to 
believe  confidently  that  under  similar  temptations  and 
sufferings  he  would  be  true  to  this  prototype  of 
humanity,  and  he  alone,  has  the  right  to  regard 
himself   as    an    object    not   unworthy    of   the    divine 

favour. 

Kant  proceeds  to  show  that  this  "idea"  has  its 
practical  value  in  itself,  and  that  it  exists  in  our 
conscience.  "We  ought  to  be  like  this  idea,  and 
therefore  we  can  be  like  it,"  again  closes  all  further 
discussion.  And  he  thinks  that  it  must  be  possible 
to  give  an  example  of  such  a  perfect  being,  for  accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  the  inner  law  every  one 
ought  to  give  a  realization  of  this  ideal.  If  now  a 
person  with  such  a  divine  disposition  had  come  at  a 
certain  time,  as  it  were  from  heaven  to  earth,  and 
had  given  in  doctrine  and  in  life  the  example  of  a  man 
acceptable  to  God  ;  and  if  thus  he  had  brought  to  the 
world  an  inestimably  great  blessing  in  the  form  of  a 
revolution  in  the  human  family  :  still,  we  should  have 
no  reason  to  regard  him  otherwise  than  as  a  man 
naturally  conceived,  though  this  does  not  deny,  abso- 
lutely,  that  he  might   have   been    a    man  conceived 


supernaturally.  But  the  latter  view  is  of  no  practical 
value,  since  the  prototype  of  the  example  given  by 
such  a  person  must  always  be  sought  in  us ;  and  the 
very  presence  of  this  idea  in  us  is  itself  incomprehen- 
sible enough,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary,  besides  the 
supernatural  origin  of  this  idea,  to  regard  it  as 
having  been  incarnated  in  a  particular  person.  In- 
deed, Kant  thinks  that  the  exaltation  of  such  a  holy 
one  above  all  human  weaknesses  would  rather  militate 
against  the  practical  application  of  the  idea,  since  it 
could  not  be  the  model  for  our  imitation. 

In  order  that  the  Gospel  may  be  of  practical  value 
for  all  times,   Kant  thinks  that  its  history  is  of  no 
significance,   and     that    the   popular    representations 
which  it  gives  must  be  deprived  of  their  mystical  garb 
so  that   we  may  get  at    the  underlying  ideas.     The 
spirit  and  the  rational  ideas  in  that  Gospel  are  for 
the  whole  world  and  for  all  ages,  and  each  one  can 
see  in  the  picture,  or  in  what  he  puts  into  it,  his  own 
dutj,{''')     The  ideas  which  Kant  finds  in  the  life  of 
Jesus  which  are  of  significance  for  each  person,  are 
as  follows  :— That  there    is   absolutely  no  salvation 
for  man  except  in  the  personal  reception  of  genuine 
moral  principles  into  the  disposition ;  that  this  recep- 
tion is  opposed  by  our  own  perversity,  which  nothing 
can  conquer  but  the  idea  of  the  moral  goodness  in  its 
purity,  with  the  conviction  that  this  goodness  is  the 
end  for  which  we  were  originally  created ;  when  this 
idea   of   moral    goodness  has  once  been  fully   taken 
into  the  disposition,  we  are  to  have  confidence  "  that 
the  gates  of  hell  cannot  prevail  against  it ;"  and  that 
the  characteristic  mark  or  the  evidence  of  the  pos- 
session cf  this  idea  is  the  good  life.     He  closes  the 


350 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


whole  discussion  with  the  remark,  that  such  an  effort 
as  he  has  made  to  find  the  ideas  of  reason  in  Scripture 
is  not  only  proper  but  also  a  duty. 

For  Kant,   therefore,  Christ  has   significance  only 
as  a  mere  idea,  namely,  the  ideal  of  perfect  humanity 
in  the  divine  mind.     He  valued  history  too  little  to 
attempt  seriously  to  account  for  the  historical  origin 
of  this  idea,  or  to  investigate  the  relation  of  the  his- 
torical  Christ  to   the  account  given  in   the  gospels. 
The  moral  teachings  of  Christ  he  valued  highly  as  an 
aid  to  reason,  and  he  states  that  they  are  sufficient  to 
establish  Christ's  authority,  whatever  the  real  history 
may  be ;  in  other  words,  he  regards  the  moral  truths 
of  the  Gospel   as    alone   significant.     Kant   thought 
that  he  found  in  the  New  Testament  itself  authority 
for  the  use  which  he  made  of  Scripture,  and  he  says 
that  Christ  did  not  appeal  to  other   laws,    such   as 
those  of  the  Old  Testament,  because  they  are  true ; 
but  that  this  was  merely  an  accommodation  to  the 
prejudices  of  the  people,  in  order  that  the  rational 
rehgion  which  Christ   taught   might  be   made   more 
palatable  to  them.     Whether  Christ  gave  what  might 
be  called  a  divine  revelation,  cannot  be  determined, 
he  thinks,  for  we  have  no  criteria  by  which  to  judge 
such  a  revelation.     Nor  can  it  be  proved   that  any 
event  is  a  miracle,  simply  because  we  do  not  under- 
stand the    powers  of  nature  enough  to  know   what 
transcends  their  limits.     Kant  declares  that  it  is  pos- 
sible that  the  person  of  the  teacher  of  the  only  reh- 
gion valid  for  all  mankind  was  a  mystery ;  that  His 
appearance  on  earth.  His  removal  from  the  same.  His 
life  and  His  sufferings,  were  all   miracles ;    and  that 
even  the  history  which  is  to  confirm  all  these  miracles 


THE    HISTORIC   PERSON   OF    CHRIST. 


351 


is  itself  a  miracle,  namely,  a  supernatural   revelation. 
But  this  must  rest  on  its  own  merits  ;  for  us  it  really 
has  no  significance.     We  may,  indeed,  still  value  the 
garb  which  served  to  introduce  the  idea  which  is  now 
indelibly  impressed  on  every  soul  and  needs  no  miracle ; 
but  a  confession  of  faith  in  these  historical  ducuments 
is  not  necessary.     While  he  thus  treats  the  historical 
account  of  Jesus  as  of  no  significance  except  as  a  shell 
into  which  the  practical  reason  puts  the  kernel,  his 
whole  argument  tends  to  destroy  faith  in  the  historic 
person  of  Jesus  as  given  in  the  Gospel,  treating  the 
account  itself  as  something  whose  truthfulness  it  is 
not  worth  while  to  investigate.     Of  the  institution  of 
the  Last  Supper  he  speaks  as  "a  sad  intercourse,"  and 
as  looking  like  a  formal  farewell,  indicating  no  speedy 
return ;    and  ''  the  complaining  words  on  the  Cross 
give  expression  to  a  disappointed  aim  (namely,  to  bring, 
during  his  life,  the  Jews  to  the  reception  of  the  true 
religion)."     The    account    of  the    Kesurrection   and 
Ascension  he  can  use  only  as  an  embodiment  of  the 
idea  of  the  beginning  of  another  life  and  the  entrance 
into  the  place  of  happiness,  that  is,  upon  communion 
with  all  that  is  good.     When  Jesus  promises  to  abide 
with  His  own  for  ever,  that  only  means  that  the  ideal 
of  humanity,  which  Christ  gave  and  which  is  accep- 
table to  God,  shall  abide  with  His  disciples  to  the  end 
of  the  world.     The  historical  Christ  is  in  reality  not 
needed  for  morality ;  but  as  the  Gospel  exists.  He  can 
be  used  for  moral  purposes.  (^*^) 

While  Kant  idealized  the  account  of  the  Pall,  and 
denied  natural  depravity,  he  nevertheless,  as  we  have 
seen,  admitted  the  reality  of  sin.  Its  essence  consists 
neither  in  sensuality  nor  in  a  corruption  of  conscience. 


352 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


There  are  two  opposite  tendencies  in  man  :  a  con- 
science which  impels  him  to  seek  the  good,  and  an 
impulse  to  selfishness.  One  or  the  other  of  these 
must  be  supreme,  and  depravity  consists  in  perverting 
the  proper  relation  between  the  two,  namely,  in  the 
subordination  of  the  conscience  to  self-love.  There- 
fore sin,  whose  beginning  is  always  a  free  choice,  but 
inexplicable,  is  selfishness  as  the  supreme  law  of 
conduct. 

In  order  that  he  may  overcome  sin  and  become 
good,  man  needs  a  radical  change  or  conversion. 
This  change  from  evil  to  good  can  no  more  be  ex- 
plained than  can  the  transition  from  a  state  of  purity 
to  sin ;  but  since  the  moral  law  demands  that  we  be- 
come better,  therefore  we  must  also  be  able  to  do  so. 
This  conversion  is  wholly  man's  work,  and  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine  of  grace  and  faith  in  conversion  has  no 
place  in  the  system.  Kant  says  that  we  can  know 
nothing  about  the  influences  of  grace,  and  that,  con- 
sequently, the  idea  can  neither  be  used  speculatively 
nor  practically.  While  the  deeds  of  a  man  are  always 
imperfect,  Kant  supposes  that  God  takes  the  good 
intention  for  the  good  deed,  and  that  he  who  has  a 
good  disposition  may  cherish  the  belief  that  God 
accepts  him.  This  is,  of  course,  a  mere  supposition, 
but  it  is  all  the  assurance  which  Kant  gives. 

His  most  serious  difficulty,  however,  consists  in  this  : 
although  a  man  may  have  formed  a  good  disposition, 
he  was  sinful  before  ;  how  then  is  the  debt  of  the  past 
to  be  paid  ?  Sin  is  an  infinite  violation  of  the  law,  and 
it  therefore  seems  as  if  its  result  ought  to  be  endless 
punishment.  The  debt  contracted  is  not  like  a  pecu- 
niary debt,  which  one  man  can  pay  for  another.     The 


THE    CHURCH. 


353 


old  man  did  not  pay  it ;  the  new  man  is,  as  it  were,  a 
new  bemg,  and  cannot  assume  the  debt  owed  by  the 
old  man— yet  divine  justice  must  be  satisfied.     Some- 
how, therefore,  the  debt  must  be  paid  in  the  process 
of  conversion.     But    Kant's  whole  discussion  of  the 
matter  is  confused  and  unsatisfactory,  and  at  last  he 
admits,  and  distinctly  states,  that  man  has  no  claim  to 
be  regarded  as  just,  and  that  he  is  accounted  righteous 
as  a  matter  of  grace. 

His  discussion  of  the  Church  is  characterized   by 
great  bitterness,  partly  owing,  no  doubt,  to  his  ex- 
perience  with  the  censors  in  Berlin.     He  says  that  the 
strait  gate  aud  the  narrow  way,  leading  to  eternal  life 
IS  the  good  life ;  but  the  wide  gate  and  the  broad  way 
is  the  Church.    Not  that  the  Church  itself  is  to  blame  for 
this ;  but  It  is  the  broad  way  because  attendiug  church 
confessing  its  creed,  and  celebrating  its  ordinances,  are 
held  to  be  the  means  for  becoming  acceptable  unto 
God. 

His  aversion  to  formality  in  religion  was  partly  due 
to  the  tendency  of  the  times  to  value  forms  for  their  own 
sake,  and  he  went  so  far  in  his  opposition  to  this  spirit 
as  to  reject  all  religious  observances.     He  spoke  con- 
temptuously of  all  acts  of  worship  ;  and  all  efforts  to 
please  God  otherwise  than  by  means  of  a  moral  life  he 
pronounced  fetichism.     And  he  declared  that  between 
the  degraded  WoguHte  who  in  the  morning  places  the 
paw  of  a  bearskin  on  his  head  with  the  prayer,  ''  Do 
not  kill  me,"  and  "the  sublimated  Puritan  and 'inde- 
pendent in  Connecticut,"  there  is,  indeed,  a  great  gulf 
as  far  as  the  manifestations  of  their  faith  are  concerned, 
but  there  is  none  in  principle,  they  belonging  to  the 
same  class  in  that  respect.    This  class  consists  of  those 

A  a 


Z_3 


354 


THK    UFE   01'    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


who  place  their  divine  service  in  that  which  does  not 
make  men  better,  namely,  in  faith  in  statutory  dogmas 
or  in  the  observance  of  certain  ceremonies.     Kant  pro- 
nounces it  fetichism  to    regard  any  rehgious  obser- 
vances,    however  few   they    may  be,   as    necessary. 
Holding  such  views,  it  is  not  surprising  that  for  many 
years  he  never  attended  church,  and  observed  no  re- 
ligious usages  whatever.     When  a  new  rector  of  the 
university  was  inaugurated,  the  professors  marched  m 
procession  to  the  cathedral,  to  attend  religious  services ; 
but  unless  he  himself  was  the  rector,  Kant,  mstead  of 
entering,  passed  by  the  church. 

He  did  not  like  the  singing  in  the  churches,  and  pro- 
nounced it  mere  bawling.     In  prayer,  whether  private 
or  public,  he  had  not  the  least  faith ;  and  m  his  con- 
versation  as  well  as  writings  he  treated  it  as  a  super- 
stition,   and  held  that  to  address  any  thing  unseen 
would  open  the  way  for  fanaticism.     Not  only  did  he 
argue  against  prayer,  but  he  also  ridiculed  it,  and 
declared  that  a  man  would  be  ashamed  to  be  caught 
by  another  in  the  attitude  of  prayer. (-)    It  is  thecus- 
torn  of  Germans  to  stand  at  table  while  askmg  the 
blessing ;  if  any  one  of  his  guests  prepared  to  say 
grace,  he  would  interrupt  him  by  urging  him  to  sit 
down.     In  1 802  Hasse  said  one  day,  «  This  is  the  day 
set  apart  for  repentance  and  prayer."     Kant  at  first 
ridiculed  the  matter,  but  afterwards  admitted  that  such 
a  day  might  be  useful  in  leading  persons  to  think  ot 

their  sins. 

But    while    in    principle    Kant    views    prayer    as 

fetichism,  his  estimate  of  expediency  should  not  be  for- 
gotten. He  says,  "  The  existence  of  God  is  not  proved 
but  postulated,  and  it  can  be  used  only  for  that  purpose 


PRAYER. 


355 


for  the  sake  of  which  reason  was  obliged  to  postulate 
It.     If  now  a  man  thinks  to  himself,  '  If  I  pray  to  God 
It  can  in  no  way  injure  me;  for  if  He  does  not  exist, 
then  I  have  a  supererogation  of  good  works ;  but  if  He 
does  exist,  it  will  help  mc;'  this  prosopopoeia  is  hypo- 
crisy, smce  'we  must  suppose  in  prayer  that  he  who 
offers  it  is  perfectly  convinced  that  God  exists.    There- 
fore it  happens  that  he  who  has  already  made  great 
progress  in  goodness  ceases  to  pray,  for  sincerity  be- 
longs to  his  principal  maxims ;  and  for  this  reason, 
also,  those    who   are   found   praying   are   ashamed." 
Kant  here  makes  the  existence  of  God  so  problematical 
as  to  put  prayer  to  Him  out  of  the  question.     The 
reason  did  not  postulate  the  existence  of  God  for  the 
purpose  of  prayer ;  therefore  the  idea  of  His  existence 
does  not  justify  prayer.     But  while  he  is  certain  that 
prayer  has  no  efficacy  whatever,  except  its  influence  on 
the  men  offering  or  hearing  it,  he  nevertheless  says, 
"  In  pubUc  addresses  to  the  people,  prayer  may  be  re- 
tained, since  it  may  really  be  of  great  rhetorical  effect 
and   may   make  a   deep  impression,  and   because   in 
addressing  the  people  one  must  speak  to   their   sen- 
suousness,  and  must  let  himself  down  to  them  as  much 
as  possible."  (^^^) 

These  are  the  essential  elements  of  the  religious  views 
which  the  philosopher  cherished  till  the  close  of  life. 
Thinking  it  contemptible  for  any  one  to  become  de- 
vout in  the  weakness  of  old  age,  he  declared  that  this 
should  never  be  the  case  with  him ;  and  he  kept  his 
promise,  for  during  his  greatest  weakness  and  with 
death  staring  him  in  the  face,  there  was  a  remarkable 
absence  of  all  religious  expressions.  It  is  self-evident 
that  his  faith  could  not  be  very  cheerful,  nor  his  hopes 

A  a  2 


r/ 


A^ 


C  -^ 


A 


35g  THE   LIFE   OP   IMMANtTEL  KANT. 

briglit.      His  mind    left  many  questions    unsettled, 
questions  concerning  which  souls  of  a  deeply  religious 
nature  long  for  firm  assurance.     It  is  not  strange  that 
the  faith  which  he  built  on  his  own  postulates  varied 
8orae«-hat  with  his  moods.     While  the  close  of  his  hfe 
was  anything  but  cheerful,  he  seems  generally  to  have 
been  calm  respecting  religious  subjects.    His  emotional 
nature  does  not  appear  to  have  asserted  itself  suffi- 
ciently to  express  any  earnest  longing  for  eternal  hie. 
The  other  world  was  not  one  of  his  favourite  topics  of 
conversation,  and  he  himself  followed  the  rule  which  he 
laid  down  for  others,— not  to  attempt  to  pry  mto  the 
secrets  of  the  other  world,  but  to  wait  for  the  solution 
of  its  mysteries  till  we  get  there.    Sometimes,  however, 
the   other   life  was  mentioned  in   his  conversations. 
Some  one  said  to  him  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  get 
an  opportunity,  in  the  next  world,  to  converse  with 
him,  since  he  would  be  so  much  occupied  with  the 
company  of  the  wise  of  ancient  and  modern  times. 
Kant  answered  that  if  he  met  his  servant  Lampe  there, 
he  would  rejoice  and  exclaim,  "  God  be  praised,  I  am 
in  good  company  ! "     On   July  2nd,  1803,  while  m 
a  depressed  mood,  he  said,   "I  cannot  last  long;   I 
become  weaker  every  day."     Hasse  then  asked  him 
what  he  expected  of  the  future  life  ?    At  first  he  evaded 
the  question,  and  then  answered,  "Nothing  definite." 
At  another  time  he  said  respecting  the  next  life,  "  Of 
that  state  I  know  nothing."      And  once  he  exclaimed, 
"Eternity!  between  thee   and   here  a  great   gulf  18 

fixed." 

He  did  not  cherish  a  high  regard  for  clergymen ;  but 
the  same  must  be  said  of  his  views  of  physicians  and 
jurists.      If  the  ministers    had    been    purely  moral 


INFLUENCE  OP  HIS  RELIGIOUS  VIEWS. 


357 


teachers,  instead  of  proclaiming  doctrines  which  he 
regarded  as  beyond  the  limits  of  reason,  he  would  have 
been  more  favourably  disposed  towards  them.  If,  how- 
ever, they  were  excellent  men,  their  calling  did  not  de- 
prive them  of  his  esteem,  and  several  preachers  were 
among  his  guests ;  and  when  in  old  age  he  became 
helpless,  he  committed  himself  and  all  his  affairs  into 
the  hands  of  a  clerical  friend. 

The  fact  that  Kant  deprived  religion,  aside  from  its 
moral  elements,  of   all    significance,  as    well  as   his 
personal  attitude  towards  the  Church,  greatly  grieved 
some  of  his  friends.     His  great  authority  in  philosophy 
added  weight  to  his  theological  views,  especially  since 
his  work  on  Religion  appeared  when  his  fame  was  at 
its  height.      His  biographer  Borowski  says,  "From 
my  heart  I  wish  that  Kant   had  not   regarded  the 
Christian  religion  merely  as  a  necessity  for  the  state, 
or  as  an  institution  to  be  tolerated  for  the  sake  of  the 
weak  (which  now  so  many,  following  his  example,  do 
even  in  the  pulpit),  but  had   known  that   which  is 
positive,    improving,    and    blessed    in   Christianity."^ 
Some  of  his  disciples  in  philosophy  also  accepted  him 
as    their    religious   authority,    and    the    same  writer 
expresses  the  wish  that  "  the  beardless  youth  and  idle 
babblers,  who  in  a  hundred  less  significant  things  do 
not  know  the  right  hand  from  the  left,  did  not  appeal 
to  Kant's  views  respecting  Christianity."     There  were 
some  to  whom  the  very  fact  that  he  held  such  views 
was  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  their  truth ;  and  many 
also  adopted  his  religious  opinions  who  had  neither 
his  moral  earnestness  nor  his  outward  respect  for  exist- 
ing institutions.     There  were  those  who  accepted  his 
negative  views,  and  carried  them  to  an  extreme  which 


7 


•# 


^ 


358 


THE   Um   or   IMMAMUEI.   KANT. 


I 


he  would  have  deprecated,  and  committed  excesses  m 
his  name  for  which  he  could  not  be  held  responsible. 
At  one  time  it  was  reported  that  a  band  of  fifty  theo- 
logical students,  who  professed  to  be  Kantians,  were 
open  mockers  of  religion.     Hamann  states  that  one 
of  them  became  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  a  nobleman, 
and  advised  his  pupil  to  reject,  as  priestly  twaddle,  all 
he  had  learned  from  his  minister  respecting  religion,  and 
to  commithimself  henceforth  to  the  moral  guidance  of  his 
tutor.     The  affair  created  considerable  excitement,  and 
was  at  last  brought  before  the  consistory.     The  tutor 
admitted  the  truth  of  the  charges  brought  agamst  him, 
and  with  four  of  his  ilk  signed   a  declaration  that 
neither  morality,  nor  sound  reason,  nor  pubhc  welfare, 
could  exist  in    connexion    with    Christianity.      Such 
openly  destructive  tendencies  were  wholly  foreign  to 
Kant,  whose  hope  was  in  the  silent  power  of  ideas. 
But  while  he  did  not  seek  such  a  result,  he  was  anxious 
to  exert  a  strong  influence  on  rehgion.     Not  only  was 
the   ultimate   aim   of   his   speculation  moral,  but  he 
also  lectured  on  natural  religion,  and  was  especially 
desirous  that  theological  students  should  be  among  his 
hearers,  as  he  hoped  by  means  of  these  lectures  to 
produce  a  lasting  reformatory  effect. 

In  taking  a  general  survey  of  his  theological  opinions, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  he  discusses  the  whole 
subject  of  religion  as  a  philosopher  who  places  himself 
wholly  on  reason,  and  aims  to  move  strictly  within  its 
limits.  His  early  religious  training,  the  religious 
character  of  the  age,  his  mathematical  mind,  his  dis- 
regard of  the  historical  element,  and  his  depreciation 
of  the  emotional  nature,  must  be  taken  into  the 
account.C")     Above  all,  the  extent  of  his  knowledge 


XEOLECT   OF   THEOLOGICAL    STUDIES, 


359 


of  the  subject  under  discussion  should  be  considered. 
Although  he  subjected  theology  to  severe  criticism,  he 
did  not  make  it  a  subject  of  careful  study ;  and  this 
fact    alone    can    explain    some   of  his  strange  views 
respecting  theology,  especially  the  Scriptures,  which' 
are  found  in  his  book  on  Religion.      The  suspicion 
arises  that  his  reliance  on  d  priori  constructions  relieved 
him  of  the  necessity  of  attaining  that  knowledge  of  the 
subject  which  many  regard  as  essential  for  its  thorough 
discussion.     After  speaking  of  the  universal  character 
of  his  learning,  Borowski  says,  "  Theological  investi- 
gations only,  of  whatever  kind  they  might  be,  especially 
exegetics    and    dogmatics,    he   never   touched."     He 
neglected  even  the  works  of  Ernesti  and  Semler,  which 
excited  much  attention  at  that  time.     His  studies  and 
occupations  were  such  that  he  could  not  be  a  theo- 
logian ;  and  the  writer  just  quoted,  speaking  of  his 
theological  attainments,  says,  "  Really,  his  knowledge 
in  this  department  did  not  extend  beyond  the  dogmatic 
lectures  of  Professor  Dr.  Schulz,  which  he  heard  in 
1742 — 1743.  .  .  .  Many  will  probably  find  the  story 
remarkable,  that  Kant,  before  he  published  his  work 
on  '  Religion  within  the  Limits  of  Reason,'  carefully 
read  one  of  our  oldest  catechisms,  namely,  the  '  Basis 
of  Christian    Doctrine,'    which    appeared  in  1732  or 
1733.     This  explains  the  strangeness  of  many  expres- 
sions in  the  book,  and  his  evident  inclination  to  adopt, 
for  his  theological  views  expressed  in  the  work,  the 
terminology  and  exegesis  prevalent  during  the  years 
mentioned."     In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  according 
to  Borowski,  he  read  scarcely  anything  in  theology, 
except  some  works  on  Church  History.    In  the  funeral 
oration  on  Kant,  his  colleague  Wald  said,  "  He  was, 


^ 


360 


THE    LIFE    OF   IM MANUEL   KANT. 


however,  entirely  ignorant  of  the  new  investigations 
of  Semler,  Ernesti,  Noesselt,  and  others.     His  theolo- 
gical  knowledge  scarcely  reached  to  1760.     What  he 
had  formerly  learned  at  school  from  the  catechetical 
instructions  of  Dr.  Schulz  and  finally  in  his  dogmatic 
lectures,  was  and  continued  to  be  his  entire  knowledge 
of  positive  religion.     No  wonder  that  respecting  it  he 
judged  thus  and  not  otherwise."  {''')     But  while  his 
neglect  of  the  study  of  the  subject  explains  some  of  his 
strange  views,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  his  theology  is 
interesting,  in  that  it  shows  what  so  great  a  meta- 
physician regarded  as    settled  by  reason    respecting 
natural  religion.     And  whatever  may  be  thought  of 
his  theology  and  his  ethics,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
there  is  much  in  them  that  is  rich  and  profound,  and 
worthy  of  serious  thought ;  and  his  moral  and  rehgious 
views,  as  well  as  his  metaphysical  works,  may  give  the 
impulse  to  new  constructions.     That  these  views  are 
final  could  be  claimed  only  by  him  who  is  ignorant  of 
the  developments  in  ethics  and  religion  since  Kant's 

time. 

The  rehgious  opinions  of  our  philosopher  were  too 
revolutionary  in  their  character  not  to  excite  opposi- 
tion. During  the  reign  of  Frederick  the  Great  there 
was  no  danger  that  the  Government  would  interfere 
with  their  promulgation;  but  a  marked  change 
occurred  when  Frederick  WiUiam  II.  ascended  the 
throne.  His  minister,  Woellner,  exerted  great  influ- 
ence over  him,  and  used  it  against  the  tolerance  which 
had  prevailed  under  the  reign  of  his  predecessor.  In 
July,  1788,  soon  after  Woelhier  became  the  Minister 
of  Rehgion,  an  edict  was  pubHshed  which  bound  the 
teachers  of  religion  to  adhere  strictly  to  the  confes- 


THE    CENSORSHIP. 


361 


sions  of  the  Church ;  and  another,  which  appeared  a 
few  months  later,  placed  the  press  and  all  home  and 
foreign  literature  in  Prussia  under  censorship.     Three 
men  after  Woellner's  own  heart — Hermes,  Wolters- 
dorf,  and  Hillmer— were  appointed  in  1791  as  a  com- 
mittee to  execute  these  edicts,  and  the  churches  and 
schools  were  placed  under  their  supervision.     Even 
before  his  book  on  Religion  appeared,  Kant  had  been 
an  object  of  special  vigilance,  and  it  is  said  that  an 
unsuccessful  eflfort  had  been  made  to  induce  the  king 
to  forbid  the  pubhcation  of  works  by  him  in  the  future. 
The  war  with  France,  the  home  of  sensuahstic  philo- 
sophy and  materiahstic  atheism,  increased  the  vigilance 
of  the  Government,  and  in  quick    succession  edicts 
followed  each  other  which  aimed  at  the  suppression  of 
all  writings  against  the  Christian  religion.     The  re- 
action  against  the  liberal  pohcy  of  the  preceding  king 
reached  its  height  about  the  time  when  Kant's  "  Reh- 
gion within  the  Limits  of  Reason  "  appeared.    The  first 
part  of  the  book,  on  "  Radical  Evil,"  had  previously 
appeared  as  an  article  in  a  Berlin  monthly,  in  April, 
1792.     The  second  article,  entitled,  "  The  Conflict  of 
the  Good  Principle  with  the  Bad  for  the  Dominion 
over  Man,"  was  intended  for  the  same  monthly,  and 
had  been  submitted  to  the  Berhn  censors,  who,  how- 
ever, refused  to  permit    its  pubhcation.     When  the 
pubhsher  inquired  for  the  reason  of  this  refusal,  which, 
according  to  the  published  decree  respecting  the  cen- 
sorship, he  had  a  right  to  know,  he  was  informed  that 
another   instruction  was  on  hand  which  the  censor 
followed  as  his  law,  but  whose  contents  he  refused  to 
make  known.     When  Kant  was  informed  of  this  pro- 
cedure he  was  greatly  incensed.     Determined  to  pub- 


362 


THK    LIFE    OF   IMMANQEL   KANT. 


lish  his  views,  lie  submitted  the  rejected  article,  and, 
in  fact,  the  entire  contents  of  his  volume  on  Eeligion, 
to  the  theological  faculty  in  Konigsberg,  with  the 
request  that  they  should  decide  whether  the  censor- 
ship  of  the  book  belonged  to  them  or  to  the  philoso- 
phical faculty.  They  decided  that  it  belonged  to  the 
philosophical  faculty,  which,  having  examined  the 
manuscript,  gave  the  permission  for  its  publication. 
The  volume  appeared  in  1793,  consisting  of  the  article 
which  had  already  been  published,  of  that  rejected  by 
the  Berlin  censors,  and  of  two  other  articles.  The  bit- 
terness  manifested  toward  the  Church  in  the  last  article 
of  the  book  may  have  received  much  of  its  inspiration 
from  the  course  of  the  censors. 

'  Hermes,  the  principal  censor,  was  very  strict,  and 
was  watching  for  opportune  occasions  to  increase  the 
vigilance  and  severity  of  the  censorship.  A  friend  in 
Berhn  wrote  to  Kant,  "  You  see,  we  are  under  hard 
taskmasters,  and  Hermes  himself  told  my  publisher 
that  he  was  only  waiting  for  peace  to  pubUsh  several 
cabinet  decrees  which  were  lying  in  his  desk." 

The  publication  of  his  book  on  Religion,  in  spite  of 
the  rejection  of  the  second  part  in  Berlin,  was  of 
course  o^lculated  to  arouse  still  more  opposition  to 
Kant;?and  the  contents  of  the  book  were  such  as  to 
embitter  the  censors  and  those  who  agreed  with  their 
religious  views.  The  work  excited  the  more  attention 
because  it  was  regarded  as  giving  the  theology  of  the 
Critical  Philosophy.  In  1794  Woellner,  in  the  name 
and  at  "the  special  command"  of  the  king,  wrote  to 
Kant  respecting  the  religious  views  promulgated  by 
his  lectures  and  writings,  making  special  reference  to 
his  recent  book  on  Religion,  and  charging  him  with 


CENSURED    HY   THE    GOVERNMENT. 


363 


distorting  and  degrading  many  of  "  the  principal  and 
fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  and  of 
Christianity."  For  this  Kant  is  to  render  an  account 
to  the  Government,  and  he  is  warned  not  to  promul- 
gate similar  views  in  the  future.  In  his  reply,  Kant 
gave  an  account  and  a  defence  of  his  course  with 
reference  to  theological  doctrine,  and  at  the  close  of 
his  letter  he  says,  "  As  far  as  the  second  point  is  con- 
cerned— not  to  be  guilty  in  the  future  of  a  distortion 
and  degradation  of  Christianity  similar  to  that  of 
which  I  am  accused — I  think  it  safest,  in  order  to 
forestall  the  least  suspicion  in  this  respect,  as  your 
Royal  Majesty's  most  faithful  subject  to  declare 
solemnly,  that  henceforth  I  will  refrain  altogether  from 
all  public  discussion  of  religion,  whether  natural  or 
revealed,  both  in  lectures  and  in  writings." 

After  the  king's  death  Kant  regarded  himself  as 
released  from  the  promise  which  he  had  made  in  this 
letter,  and  as  again  at  liberty  to  express  his  religious 
views  publicly.  While  some  blamed  him  for  having 
made  the  promise,  regarding  it  as  showing  a  lack  of 
moral  courage,  others  now  censured  him  severely  for 
publishing  his  religious  views  after  the  king's  death, 
regarding  this  act  as  a  violation  of  his  pledge,  and  he 
was  charged  with  duplicity.  His  own  explanation  of 
his  conduct  is,  that  he  was  very  careful  in  choosing 
the  expression,  "  as  your  Royal  Majesty's  most  faith- 
ful subject;"  and  that  he  chose  it  for  the  very  purpose 
of  regaining  his  former  freedom,  if  the  monarch 
receiving  the  promise  should  die  before  him ;  for  under 
the  following  king  he  would  no  longer  be  the  subject  of 
Frederick  William  II.,  to  whom  he  made  the  promis^ 
But  if  it  was  prepared,  as  Kant  says  it  was,  with  very 


V 


364 


THE   LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


great  care  and  with  this  mental  reservation,  then  it  is 
evident  that  it  was  intended  to  make  the  king  and  the 
censors  think  that  he  meant  one  thing  by  the  promise, 
while  Kant  himself  really  meant  something  very  dif- 
ferent. Every  one  who  read  it  without  Kant's  expla- 
nation would  naturally  regard  it  as  a  promise  to  remain 
silent  on  the  subject  in  the  future.  If  neither  the 
promise  itself,  nor  the  later  explanation  which  Kant 
gave  of  it,  reveals  a  heroic  nature,  it  should  be  taken 
into  account  that  Kant  was  already  old,  that  such  con- 
flicts with  the  authorities  were  exceedingly  disagreeable 
to  him,  and  that  he  laid  much  stress  on  obedience  to 
the  law  and  submission  to  the  existing  authorities. (^^*) 


365 


CHAPTER  XI. 

INFLUENCE    OF    KANT.— ADVOCATES    AND    OPPONENTS  OF  THE 

CRITICAL    PMLOSOPfly. 

Early  popularity  as  a  teacher — Spread  of  his  reputation — Neglect 
of  the  "  Kritik  " — Its  sudden  popularity — Poems  on  Kant  and 
his  philosophy — Pilgrimages  to  Konigsberg— Enthusiasm  of 
disciples — Influence  of  works  following  the  "Kritik" — Fana- 
ticism of  Kantians — Opposition  :  Hamann,  Kraus,  Herder — 
Silence  amid  abuses — Influence  of  Kantism  at  home  and 
abroad — Honours — Subsidence  of  the  excitement — The  return 
to  Kant. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  form  an  exact  estimate 
of  Kant's  influence  on  metaphysics,  literature,  and 
thought  in  general.  There  was  a  time  when  his 
philosophy  had  gained  a  power  which  seems  almost 
fabulous,  and  when  its  author  was  regarded  by  many 
of  his  disciples  with  a  reverence  which  bordered  on 
adoration.  This  great  fame,  the  reward  of  long  and 
severe  toil  amid  difficulties,  was  the  crown  of  his  old 
age.  While  his  reputation  in  the  last  decade  of  the 
eighteenth  century  has  scarcely  a  parallel,  it  becomes 
the  more  remarkable  when  we  reflect  that  it  was  a 
tribute  to  profound  thoughts  lying  beyond  the  usual 
sphere  of  literature  and  even  of  philosophical  research 
— thoughts  which  silently,  without  the  aid  of  a  school 


366 


THE    LIFK    OF    IMMANUETi    KANT. 


*• 


t 


m 


or  persons  of  influence  or  any  other  favourable  externa) 
circumstances,  worked  like  leaven  in  the  intellec- 
tual world,  and  wrought   a  marvellous  revolution  in 

thinking. 

When  Kant  became  a  teacher,  his  local  reputation 
for  scholarship  was  already  so   great  as  to  crowd  his 
lecture-room.     The  character  of  his  instruction  rapidly 
increased  his  reputation,  made  him  the  most  popular 
lecturer  in  the  university,  and  attracted  to  his  audi- 
tory many  who  were  not  students.     During  his  earlier 
years   he    stood  in    more^  intimate   relation  with  his 
students  than  afterwards*;  he  sympathized  with  their 
aspirations,  took  an  interest  in  their  intellectual,  moral, 
and  social   welfare,    and    exerted   on  many   a  direct 
personal  influence.  The  popularity  gained  as  a  teacher 
was  increased  by  his  authorship,  and  long  before  the 
*'  Kritik ''  appeared  he  had  gained  an  extensive  and 
enviable  reputation,   though   lie  could  not  have  been 
called  celebrated. 

In  the  learned  and  governmental  circles  of  Berlin 
he  attracted  attention  by  means  of  his  contest, 
in  1763,  for  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences ;  and  about  the  same  time  he  was,  as  he 
himself  said,  "introduced  to  the  public"  through 
some  reviews  of  his  books  by  Moses  Mendelssohn. 
Thus,  already  before  he  became  a  professor,  he  had 
won  distinction  as  an  instructive  and  inspiring  lecturer, 
and  as  a  profound,  original,  and  genial  writer.  His 
reputation  as  a  philosophical  thinker  was  materially 
increased  by  his  Inaugural  Dissertation  of  1770,  but 
its  influence  was  confined  to  a  limited  number  of 
scholars.     The  first  eleven  years  of  his  professorship 


EARLY   REPDTATION. 


367 


did  not  add  to  his  reputation  as  an  author,  since  he 
published  no  books  during  this  period ;  but  what  he 
had  previously  written  was  of  such  a  character  as  to 
excite  great  expectations.  Still,  before  the  " Kritik"  ap- 
peared his  books  had  not  created  a  general  impression 
that  a  reformer  in  philosophy  had  arisen.  In  1779, 
two  years  before  the  publication  of  the  "  Kritik,"  Pro- 
fessor Kraus  was  in  Gottingen  on  a  visit.  In  the 
company  of  several  of  the  professors  of  the  university, 
he  made  the  remark  that  Kant  had  a  manuscript  in 
his  desk  which  would  one  day  cost  the  philosophers 
hard  work.  The  professors  smiled  at  the  statement, 
thinking  that  this  could  hardly  be  expected  from  a 
dilettante  in  philosophy.  And  although  he  was  highly 
esteemed  in  Konigsberg  as  a  scholar,  before  the 
"Kritik  "was  published,  his  reputation  in  his  native 
city  was  based  less  on  his  profound  metaphysical 
speculations  than  on  several  courses  of  popular  lec- 
tures. Only  after  that  work  had  given  him  celebrity ' 
abroad  did  he  become  generally  esteemed  at  home  as 
a  deep  thinker. 

Even  after  the  "  Kritik  "  appeared  it  attracted  little 
attention  for  several  years.  Immediately  after  its 
publication,  Hamann  wrote,  "  Kant  intends  to  publish 
a  popular  epitome  of  the  '  Kritik  '  for  the  laity."  It 
soon  became  evident  that  philosophers  as  well  as  the 
laity  needed  a  "  popular  epitome ;"  indeed,  compared 
with  Kant,  the  professional  philosophers  of  the  day 
might  generally  have  been  classed  with  the  laity.  But 
the  "  Prolegomena,"  published  in  1783,  did  not  make 
Kant's  master-piece  popular. 

Besides  his  own  popular  abstract  of  the  "  Kritik," 


\ 


368 


THE    LIFE    OF    TMMANUEL    KANT. 


'<".. 


other  efforts  were  made  to  bring  its   contents  before 
the  pubhc.     The  first  notices  and  reviews  of  the  work 
were,    however,  not  favourable,  and  philosophers   in 
different  universities  spoke  of  it  disparagingly ;  it  was 
evident  that  they  had  either  failed  to  read  or  to  under- 
stand the  book.     A  popular  exposition  of  the  contents 
of  the   work   was  published   in    1784,    by  Professor 
Schultz  of  Konigsberg,  with  which  Kant  was  so  much 
pleased   that   he    not   only    pronounced  it   a   correct 
commentary  of  his  philosophy,  but  also  referred  persons 
to  it  who   desired   an   explanation   of  the  "  Kritik." 
Still  the  Kantian  philosophy  excited  little  attention. 
This  neglect  is  not  wholly  attributable  to  the  inherent 
difficulties    of   the  book.     Tlie  study  of  metaphysics 
had  fallen  into  contempt ;  and  soon  after  the  "  Kritik  " 
appeared   Kant    complained    that    that    subject   was 
greatly  neglected  by  scholars,  and  was  no  longer  placed 
among   the   profound    sciences,    and   he  thought  the 
appearances    indicated    that    speculative    philosophy 
was   about   to   perish.     The   learned   were    devoting 
themselves  to  the  study  of  the  useful  sciences,  and 
the  great  revival  in  literature  made  the  department 
of  belles-lettres    so   prominent   as  to   push    specula- 
tive works  into  the  background.     These  various  causes 
led  to  the  neglect  of  the    "  Kritik,"  and  two  years 
after  its  appearance  the  author  spoke  of  the  silence 
with  which  the  book  had  been  received  by  the  learned 
public.      In    1784    Hamann    wrote,    ''  The    '  Kritik 
of   Pure    Reason'   is    beginning   to  stir   and  to    fer- 
ment;" but  the  time  for  its  success  had  not  yet  come. 
Kant's  book  on  "  The  Basis    of  the  Metaphysics  of 
Morality,"  appearing  in  1785,  directed  new  attention 
to  the  author,  and  may  have  had  some  influence  in 


SUDDEN    POPULARITY. 


369 


preparing  the  way  for  the  success  of  the  "  Kritik."  For 
five  or  six  years  after  the  work  appeared  it  seemed 
doubtful  whether  it  would  achieve  any  marked  suc- 
cess, and  at  the  end  of  this  time  there  were  about  as 
many  voices  against  it  as  in  its  favour.  In  1786-87, 
K.  L.  Eeinhold  published  a  series  of  letters  on  the 
"  Kritik,"  in  a  popular  literary  journal,  and  these, 
more  than  anything  else,  introduced  the  work  to  the 
attention  of  the  literary  public.  In  1787  a  second 
edition  of  the  book  appeared.  ('^^) 

All  at  once  the  work  now  became  popular,  and  the 
praise  was  as  loud  and  fulsome  as  at  first  the  silence 
had  been  profound.     The  literature  of  the  day  began 
to  teem  with  Kantian  ideas,  with  discussions  of  the 
new  philosophy,  and  with  the  praises  of  its   author ; 
and  these  were  not  confined  to  literature,  but  are  also 
found  in  the  correspondence  of  the  day,  and  they  were 
frequently  the  topics  of  conversation.     An  enthusiasm 
was  aroused  which  was  all  the  more  remarkable  be- 
cause it  was  occasioned  by  a  cold  and  dry  metaphysical 
work — an  enthusiasm  which  in  its  zeal  threatened  to 
overwhelm  all   opposition,  which  became  contagious 
and  carried  with  it  others  than  professors  and  students, 
scholars  and  literary  men.     High  officials  in  Berhn 
would  lay  aside  the  weighty  affairs  of  state  to  con- 
sider the  "  Kritik,"  and  among  them  were  found  warm 
admirers  of  the  work  and  its  author.     Merchants  un- 
accustomed to  severe  study  took  up  the  book,  read  it 
with   absorbing  interest,    and  became  professed  dis- 
ciples of  the  Konigsberg   metaphysician.      A   friend 
wrote   to  Kant    from  Brunswick,   in   1787,   that  the 
letters  of  Reinhold  had  created  a  great  sensation  there, 
and  had  aroused  the  liveliest  interest  in  his  system ; 

R  b 


370 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


and    he   declared  that  though  he  was   so    far  from 
Konigsberg,    he    was   surrounded    by    the    Kantian 
philosophy.     Even  while  travelling,  men  would  read 
the  book,  and  this  correspondent  states  that  m  the 
Hacrue  he  had  found  a  man  all  alone  in  his  room,  in 
a  hotel,  absorbed  in  the  effort  to  master  the  "  Kritik. 
This  is  but  a  sample  of  the  interest  excited  by  the 
book  when  its  popularity  began.     Not  only  m  private 
social  circles,  but  also  at  table  in  pubHc  houses  this 
new  philosophy  and  its  author  were  eagerly  discussed. 
Nor  was  the  interest  in  it  confined  to  the  men ;  women 
also  took  up  the  book,  racked  their  brams  over  its 
contents,  sought  explanations  of  its   mysteries,  and 
professed  to    be    disciples,    as  well    as   admirers  ot 

Kant.  •     i.   ii 

Significant  voices    were    still    heard    against  the 

Kantian  philosophy,  and  it   met  with  decided  oppo- 
sition in  every  stage  of  its  progress  to  victory ;  but 
shortly  after  its  popularity  began  it  was  spread  all 
over  Germany,  and  within  ten  years  after  the  "  Kritik 
appeared  its  author  was  on  the  pinnacle  of  fame.     It 
would  not  have  been  strange  if  he  had  received  the 
quiet  and  profound  admiration  of  scholars;  but  the 
popular  applause  bestowed  on  him  is  rather  such  as 
is    accorded  to  military   heroes    or  favourite  party 
leaders  than  to  metaphysicians  or   even    to   literary 
men.     Many  looked  on  him  as  a  kind  of   universal 
oracle   who   could    authoritatively    decide   important 
questions  even  outside  of  the  domain  of  metaphysics. 
So    great   was    the    popularity    of    this    philosophy, 
that   it   was  held   responsible    for   results    of  which 
it  was  innocent,  and  to  it,  even  the  most  absurd  in- 
fluences  were  attributed.     Thus,  Professor  Reuss,  of 


<( 


>> 


THE    **  KRITIK        IN    THE    UNIVERSITIES. 


371 


Wurzberg,  felt  it  incumbent  on  him,  in  1792,  to  prove 
that  the  French  Revolution  did  not  spring  from  the 
Kantian  Criticism.  (*^°)  On  the  other  hand,  there  were 
disciples  who  wanted  it  to  be  made  the  law  for  every- 
thing, who  desired  science,  philosophy,  literature, 
governments,  religion,  and  life,  to  be  conformed  to  its 
principles ;  and  it  was  thought  that  even  postal  affairs 
should  be  regulated  according  to  the  new  transcen- 
dentalism.('^^) 

From  the  universities  it  soon  drove  the  remnants  of 
the  philosophy  of  Wolf  and  Crusius,  and  it  became 
the  prevalent  system  in  Catholic,  as  well  as  Protestant 
institutions ;  it  is  claimed  that  it  gained  even  more 
ground  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  Besides 
Konigsberg,  it  was  taught  in  the  universities  of  Er- 
langen,  Jena,  Halle,  Leipzig,  Gottingen,  Wiirzburg, 
Mayence,  Heidelberg,  Ingolstadt,  Erfurt,  Bamberg, 
DilHngen,  and  other  places ;  indeed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  last  decade  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
lectures  on  the  *'  Kritik "  were  delivered  in  all  the 
universities  of  Germany.  It  was  also  taught  in 
cloisters  ;  and  in  many  cities  where  there  were  no 
universities,  lectures  on  it  were  delivered  before  mixed 
audiences. 

The  Critical  system  and  its  author  became  so  cele- 
brated that  their  praises  were  frequently  sung  by  poets, 
who  strove  to  compensate  for  the  lack  of  poetic  worth 
in  their  verses  by  an  admiration  which  was  boundless. 
The  students,  ever  ready  to  do  him  honour,  repeatedly 
celebrated  him  in  song ;  and  soon  after  his  death  a 
number  of  poems  on  Kant  were  composed  by  students, 
professors,  and  others.  A  few  years  before  his  de- 
cease, 348   Latin  hexameters,  celebrating  the  merits  of 

B  b  2 


372 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


the  author  of  the  ''  Kritik,"  were  published  in  Konigs- 
berg.     These  words   occur  in  the  poem  :  ''  Et  lux  e 
densis  oriatur  tanta  tenebris."  n     I^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^e 
that  Kant  was  sung   by  poets ;    but  the  attempt  to 
turn  his  metaphysics  into  verse  is  almost  too  much 
for  human   nature  to   bear;    yet  such   an  effort  was 
actually  made,  and  the  result  was  published  in  1794. 
The  whole  was  prefaced  by  an  ode  "  To  the  Founder 
of  the  Critical  Philosophy."  D     The  verses  following 
this  ode  bear  the  titles  :  "  Time  and  Space,  the  Pure 
Forms    of    Sensation;"    "Methodology;"   ^' To   the 
Reason  ;"  "  The  Highest  Principle  of  Morality  ;"    and 
other  equally  felicitous  poetic  inscriptions.     Even  if 
these  and  other  verses  on  Kant  lack  poetic  inspiration, 
the  enthusiasm  which  they  display  is  an  evidence  of 
the   wonderful    influence  of   the  philosopher   on  his 

contemporaries. 

The  obscure  and  isolated  Konigsberg   became  the 
centre  of  philosophy,  and  Kant  was  so  celebrated  that 
his   fame  was  burdensome  on  account  of  the  corre- 
spondence and    the   visits  of  which    he   became  the 
victim,  though  in  many  respects  the  calls  he  received 
were  as  gratifying  as  they  were  complimentary.     He 
attracted  many  students  to  the  city,  who  crowded  his 
lecture-room,  and  many  who  were  not  students  came 
solely  to  see   him  and  to   receive  the  benefit  of  his 
counsel  and   instruction.      Among  those    who   made 
pilgrimages  to  Konigsberg  was  Reuss,  Professor  of 
Philosophy  in   Wtirzburg,  who  one   day  entered   his 
room  with  the  remark  that  he  had  come  160  miles 
(German)  to  see  Kant;  no  small  undertaking  in  those 
days  of  slow  and  difficult  travel.     His  bishop  (Catholic) 
had  aided  him  in  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  journey. 


PILGRIMAGES    TO    KONIGSBERG. 


373 


Another  Professor  of  Philosophy,  Memel,  of  Erlangen, 
came  to  Konigsberg  for  the  same  purpose.  Count  Purg- 
stall  made  a  journey  all  the  way  from  Vienna  to  visit 
Kant,  and  then,  full  of  enthusiasm  over  what  he  had 
seen  and  heard  of  the  thinker,  he  went  to  Copenhagen 
and  gave  glowing  descriptions  of  his  visit.  The  wife  of 
a  Danish  cabinet  minister  wrote,  "  We  had  very  definite 
accounts  of  Kant  last  summer.  A  young  Count  Purg- 
stall,  from  Vienna,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Konigsberg, 
and  then  came  to  us.  We  listened  to  him  with  great 
pleasure,  because  he  had  often  seen  the  philosopher  of 
Konigsberg  and  came  to  us  from  him  with  shining 
countenance,  like  Moses  from  Mount  Sinai."  ('")  The 
tutor  of  the  Prince  of  Brunswick  sought  to  make  a 
similar  pilgrimage,  but  was  prevented ;  he,  however, 
secured  manuscript  copies  of  Kant's  lectures  on 
morality  and  anthropology,  and  used  them  in  instruct- 
ing the  prince. 

It  is  almost  incredible  that  any  man  should  have  been 
the  object  of  such  tributes  of  praise  as  were  bestowed  on 
Kant,  the  more  so  when  the  nature  of  his  inetaphysics 
is  considered.  The  enthusiasm  which  he  aroused  was 
in  strange  contrast  with  his  own  aversion  ta  all  extra- 
vagant feeling.  A  certain  mania  seems  to  have  taken 
possession  of  many  of  his  admirers,  so  that  not  merely 
to  his  philosophy  but  also  to  its  author  perfection 
was  ascribed.  "He  lived  as  he  taught,"  was  echoed 
and  re-echoed.  The  Kantian  Criticism  had  apparently 
deprived  men  of  the  power  of  criticism,  and  the 
"  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason,"  of  the  exercise  of  reason. 
Those  who  called  Kant  the  Master  of  Philosophy,  the 
Hercules  among  thinkers,  the  modern  Socrates,  the 
German   Plato   and  Aristotle  united   in   one   person, 


ft^ 


^'^: 


374 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


were  very  moderate.  One  wrote,  "  God  said,  Let 
there  be  light;  and  there  was— Kant's  philosophy." 
Among  his  most  ardent  admirers  was  Professor  von 
Baggesen,  of  Copenhagen,  a  literary  character  of 
some  repute  at  that  time  on  account  of  his  writings 
both  in  Danish  and  German.  In  common  with  many 
others,  he  saw  in  the  Kantian  philosophy  the  salvation 
of  the  world.  In  a  letter  to  his  friend  Erhard,  he  calls 
Kant  "  our  philosophical  Messiah,"  and  states  that 
he  intends  to  visit  Konigsberg  solely  for  the  purpose 
of  seeing  "the  second  Messiah."  Afterwards  he 
wrote  that  he  had  been  obhged  to  abandon  the  project 
of  visiting  Konigsberg  to  see  ''  our  Messiah."  He 
also  wrote,  "  Next  to  Christ,  this  man  interests  me 
most  of  the  living  and  the  dead." 

The  glory  of  the  "  Kritik "  was  reflected  on  the 
works  of  Kant  which  followed  it,  and  all  of  them 
appeared  in  large  editions.  When  his  books  on 
morahty  and  religion  were  published,  they  were  re- 
garded as  part  of  the  Critical  system,  and  shared  its 
popularity.  Kant  was  lauded  as  the  saviour  of  rehgion 
and  morality,  and  some  regarded  him  as  the  improver 
and  perfecter  of  the  Christian  rehgion.  In  the  uni- 
versities, as  well  as  in  the  churches,  rationalism 
became  prevalent,  and  by  means  of  lectures  and  sermons 
it  was  spread  among  students  and  the  masses.  Mo- 
rality, with  the  Categorical  Imperative  as  its  Golden 
Eule,  became  the  watchword  of  the  pulpit ;  and  God, 
freedom,  and  immortahty,  the  trinity  of  rationalism, 
were  the  favourite  dogmas.  Creeds  and  the  cultus,  as 
well  as  the  Scriptures,  were  now  to  be  conformed  to  the 
Critical  Philosophy  and  its  religion  and  morality.  A 
Reformed  minister  declared  that  the  Kantian  morality 


INFLUENCE    OF    HIS    BOOK    ON    RELIGION. 


375 


surpasses  that  of  Christianity.  Reinhold,  who  more 
than  any  one  else  had  promoted  the  popularity  of  the 
"  Kritik,"  wrote  to  Erhard,  one  of  Kant's  most  inti- 
mate friends,  "  Kant's  book  on  Religion  has  given  me 
the  indescribable  comfort  of  being  able  to  call  myself 
openly,  and  with  a  good  conscience,  a  Christian." 
Many  others  accepted  Kant's  construction  of  Chris- 
tianity, by  means  of  his  rule  of  moral  interpretation, 
as  the  Christian  religion  itself.  Erhard  was  so 
thoroughly  a  Kantian  that  he  said,  "  I  am,  as  it  were, 
a  Pietist  in  the  Kantian  philosophy;  I  can  regard 
nothing  in  it  as  orthodox  except  what  Kant  himself 
has  written."  And  he  also  says,  "  Kant's  book  on 
Rehgion  satisfies  me  wholly,"  and  he  speaks  of 
*'  Christianity  as  purified  by  Kant."  In  another 
letter  he  gives  his  views  more  fully.  Pestalozzi  had 
sent  him  a  manuscript  to  criticize,  and  he  altered  it 
considerably ;  the  alterations  were  accepted  by  the 
author,  and  Erhard  writes  of  him,  "  He  says  that  the 
changes  I  had  made  were  entirely  in  accordance  with 
his  views,  for  he,  too,  is  convinced  that  Christianity, 
according  to  its  essence,  was  never  introduced,  never 
will  be,  never  can  and  never  should  be,  since  it  is  fana- 
ticism incompatible  with  the  needs  of  men.  Only  from 
a  few  passages  can  the  morality  which  it  teaches  be 
interpreted  as  pure  and  excellent ;  but  to  these,  other 
superstitions  and  fanatical  passages  are  directly 
opposed  again.  We  will  speak  of  this  matter  soon. 
I  regard  Christian  morality  as  something  which  has 
been  falsely  imputed  to  Christianity  ;  and  the  existence 
of  Christ  does  not  at  all  seem  to  me  to  be  a  probable 
historical  fact."  These  were  the  views  of  a  man  who 
not  only  regarded  himself  as  wholly  a  Kantian,  but 


376 


rr 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


who  also  wrote  to  Kant,  "  I  can  call  myself  yours  as 
truly  as  if  you  were  my  real  father."  Another  pupil 
and  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Kant,  named  Kiesewetter, 
lectured  on  his  philosophy  in  Berlin.  He  found  it  ex- 
pedient to  make  it  appear  that  Christianity  and  the 
Critical  Philosophy  harmonize,  but  states  that  he  felt 
it  exceedingly  difficult  to  steer  between  the  Scylla  of 
antagonism  to  Christianity  and  the  Charybdis  of 
hypocrisy.  To  Kant  he  wrote,  "  I  assure  you,  dearest 
Professor,  that  at  times  I  am  placed  in  situations  in 
which  1  need  all  possible  caution,  on  the  one  hand, 
not  to  become  untruthful,  and  on  the  other,  not  to  re- 
veal my  views  and  injure  myself."  Some  agreement 
between  the  Christian  and  the  Critical  system  he  thinks 
possible,  and  he  appeals  to  Kant  to  aid  him  with 
suggestions.  "  I  am  convinced  that  it  could  at  least 
be  made  evident  that  the  fundamental  principle  of 
your  moral  system  harmonizes  well  with  the  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  system,  and  that  if  Christ  had  heard 
and  understood  you,  he  would  probably  have  said, 
"  That  is  what  I  meant  to  teach  with  my  command. 
Love  God,  et  cet."  The  philosopher  Reinhold  assured 
Schiller,  that  in  a  century  Kant  would  have  the  re- 
putation of  Jesus  Christ.  In  some  quarters  it  became 
quite  common  to  draw  a  paralled  between  the  author  of 
the  Critical  Philosophy  and  the  Founder  of  the  Christian 
religion. 

Kant's  "  Kritik  "  was  intended  by  its  author  to  put 
an  end  to  all  extravagant  opinions.  Henceforth  there 
were  to  be  no  more  dreams  of  ghost-seers,  meta- 
physicians, and  enthusiasts  ;  instead  of  dream-land  and 
the  spirit- world,  men  were  now  to  walk  on  the  solid 
earth,  with  their  eyes  open,  and  guided  by  the  light  of 


BLIND   ADMIRATION. 


377 


reason,  but  with  their  hearts  mostly  closed.    Philosophy, 
morality,  and  religion,  were  henceforth  to  be  cold  and 
stern,  mathematically  exact,   and  very  proper.     The 
result  looks  hke  irony ;  instead    of  cold  propriety,  a 
new  fanaticism  appeared  which  seemed  to  be  but  the 
revenge  of  human  nature  for  the  effort  to  suppress  its 
feelings.     Neither  in  his  lectures  nor  in  his  books  did 
Kant  aim  merely  to  inculcate  certain  doctrines  which 
were  to  be  accepted  by  disciples,  without  further  in- 
vestigation, as    truth.      "It    is    probable    that   few 
teachers  have  so  often  and  so  earnestly  warned  against 
this  as  Kant  did ;  yet  it  is  probable  that  he  had  more 
followers  who    echoed    his    opinions    without  testing 
them  than  any  one  else.     Certain  it  is  that  he  did  not 
want  them.     To  think  for  oneself,  to  investigate,  to 
stand  on  one's  own  feet,  were  expressions  which  were 
constantly  recurring."('")    But  instead  of  accomplish- 
ing what   Kant   desired,  a    spirit  of   blind   devotion, 
which  fanatically  advocated  a  system  not  understood 
and  often  grossly  perverted,  characterized  many  of  the 
disciples  of  Kantism  during  the  period  of  its  greatest 
dominion.     The  folly  and  extravagance  are,  of  course, 
to  be  ascribed  mainly  to  those  who  did  not  fathom  the 
depths  of  that  philosophy ;   but  the  same  spirit  is  seen 
in  Reinhold,  in  Fichte  while  yet  a  Kantian,  and  in  many 
others  who  claimed  to  be  the  true  followers  of  Kant 
and   authentic  interpreters    of  his   system."(^^'^)     His 
professed  disciples  differed  respecting  the  interpretation 
of  his  philosophy,  each  claiming  to  be  a   correct  ex- 
ponent of  the  views  of  the  master.     Bitter  contentions 
occurred  in   the  school    itself,  and  many  and    great 
abuses    were   committed    in   the   name   of   Criticism. 
Those  who  were  opposed  to  this  philosophy  attacked  it 


u' 


i 


(: 


'rl 
I 


< 

i 


878 


THE    LIFE   OP   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


severely,  exposed  the  folly  of  its  followers,  and  added 
to  the  philosophical  confusion. (^^^) 

Among  the  opponents  of  the  system  were  some  of 
the  most  eminent  men  of  the  day ;  but  their  first 
opposition  was  overwhelmed  by  the  tide  which  for 
awhile  swept  everything  before  it  and  resisted  all 
efforts  to  produce  an  ebb.  The  popular  philosophers 
opposed  Kant  because  he  introduced  reason  instead  of 
common  sense  as  the  criterion  of  truth ;  many  of  the 
advocates  of  illumination  opposed  him  because  he  re- 
jected their  endasmonism ;  others,  who  wanted  the  Bible 
to  be  wholly  renounced,  objected  to  him  because  he  was 
willing  to  retain  that  book  in  religious  instruction ; 
and  the  evangelical  theologians  or  supernaturalists,  as 
they  were  called  to  distinguish  them  from  the  ration- 
alists, were  opposed  to  his  subordination  of  Scripture 
to  reason,  to  the  subjection  of  religion  to  the  position 
of  a  handmaid  of  morality,  and,  in  fact,  to  his  entire 
theology.  Men  like  Storr,  Flatt,  Doderlein,  Reinhard, 
entered  the  lists  against  him.  Schleiermacher  must 
also  be  placed  among  the  opposition,  though  his  in- 
fluence only  began  to  be  felt  towards  the  close  of 
Kant's  life  ;  his  theory  of  the  relation  of  the  emotions 
to  religion  was  diametrically  opposed  to  Kant's  view, 
and  he  became  the  most  potent  opponent  of  rationalism. 
The  adversaries  of  the  Critical  Philosophy  subjected 
it  to  the  severest  criticism,  exposed  its  weak  points 
and  the  abuses  made  of  the  system  by  its  friends. 
The  ebb  did  come,  and  the  reflux  was  as  marked,  if 
not  as  sudden,  as  the  flow  had  been.  For  every  ardent 
admirer  of  the  Kantian  philosophy  there  was  an  equally 
ardent  opponent ;  but  for  extravagance  the  professed 
Kantians  retained  the  palm. 


OPPOSITION    OP    HAMANN    AND   KRAUS.  ' 


379 


Here  we  must  consider  the  relation  of  scholars  to 
Kantism  chiefly  from  a  personal  stand-point,  namely, 
so  far  as  it  affected  Kant  himself.  Among  his  personal 
friends,  as  we  have  seen,  there  were  zealous  advocates 
of  his  system ;  but  there  were  others,  some  of  them  in 
Konigsberg,  who  as  decidely  rejected  it.  Hamann 
opposed  Kant's  moral  and  religious  views  more 
emphatically  than  he  did  his  metaphysics.  According 
to  Kant,  religion  consists  in  what  we  do  to  gain  the 
divine  favour,  namely,  in  a  moral  life ;  according  to 
Hamann,  it  consists  in  what  God  does  for  us.  In  his 
letters,  which  contain  numerous  allusions  to  Kant,  he 
expresses  the  highest  regard  for  his  intellect,  and  praises 
the  "Kritik'*  as  a  great  work,  but  often  speaks 
slightingly  of  the  Critical  Philosophy.  (^^^) 

But  Hamann's  opposition  was  less  significant  than 
that  of  Professor  Kraus.  The  latter  was  a  systematic 
thinker,  the  former  was  not ;  and  Kraus  was  far  more 
intimate  with  Kant  than  Hamann.  He  had  been  a  pupil 
of  the  great  philosopher,  was  his  colleague,  and  at 
one  time  his  daily  guest.  While  a  great  admirer  of 
his  teacher,  he  thought  for  himself.  Kraus  had  fine 
speculative  powers,  and  Kant  spoke  of  him  in  the 
most  complimentary  terms,  regarding  him  as  one  of 
the  greatest  minds  the  world  had  ever  produced, 
and  he  did  not  hesitate  to  compare  him  with  Kepler. 
In  his  old  age  he  said  to  a  friend,  *'  Of  all  men  whom 
I  have  known  in  my  life,  I  have  found  no  one  with 
such  talents  to  comprehend  all  things  and  to  learn  all, 
and  yet  in  every  affair  to  stand  as  admirably  and 
eminently  as  our  Professor  Kraus.  He  is  quite  an  un- 
paralleled man." 

The  influence  of  such  a  mind  in  favour  of  his   Criti- 


V 


i 


>! 


M 


!i:^- 


I' 


380 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


cism  would  have  been  especially  gratifying  to  Kant. 
Kraus,  who  was  a  superior  mathematician,  did  not 
condemn  speculation,  but  he  objected  to  the  efforts  of 
those  who  made  it  the  source  of  all  knowledge,  and  he 
opposed  the  flagrant  abuses  of  philosophy  because 
they  were  deleterious  to  the  advance  of  learning.  The 
conduct  of  many  professed  Kantians  disgusted  him, 
and  he  vigorously  assailed  tlieir  transcendental  mad- 
ness. In  his  lectures  he  spoke  with  warmth  and  even 
with  bitterness  against  the  modern  metaphysic,  which 
he  described  as  useless,  and  thought  worthy  of  banish- 
ment from  the  universities.  It  was  in  the  midst  of 
the  abuses  of  the  Kantian  system  that  he  said,  "  What 
I  desire  and  expect  from  philosophy  is,  indeed,  accord- 
ing to  the  prevalent  opinion,  something  quite  strange, 
namely,  the  improvement  of  the  human  race  and  the 
purification  of  the  mind.  It  seems  to  me  something 
monstrous  that  there  should  be  any  fixed  philosophy, 
one  named  after  a  man,  as,  for  instance,  the  Kantian 
philosophy.''  He  spoke  of  the  "  Kritik"  as  jugglery, 
and  preferred  the  more  practical  English  and  also  the 
older  German  systems,  especially  the  Leibnitz-Wolfian. 
While  he  spoke  with  admiration  of  metaphysic  when 
it  occupied  what  he  regarded  as  its  proper  sphere,  he 
could  not  tolerate  the  metaphysicians  "  who  either 
tried  to  hide  the  insipidity  of  their  notions  behind  a 
web  of  an  incomprehensible  bombast,  or  else  expressed 
their  really  deep  thoughts  as  obscurely  before  the 
public,  by  whom  they  wished  to  be  understood,  as  if 
they  needed  to  shun  the  light  of  day."  He  was 
enraged  at  what  he  called  the  idolatry  "  of  the  coarse 
goblin,  the  Kantian  philosophy;"  he  held  that  this 
system  ought  to  be  studied,  but  that  the  aim  of  the 


'p««iiwjaiiii>iit«iu.jt...4 


J.    G.    VON    HERDER. 


381 


study  should  be  to  enable  men  the  better  to  stand  on 
their  own  feet.  "  It  grieved  him  when  such  a  system 
became  the  occasion  for  young  men,  who  had  scarcely 
grasped  the  primary  conceptions  of  logic,  to  talk 
vaguely  about  philosophy  in  general,  without  making 
any  application  of  it  to  life  and  the  commonwealth." 
And  the  statement  is  made  that  "  in  his  lectures  he 
never  permitted  an  occasion  to  pass  without  giving  his 
pupils  the  advice,  by  all  means  first  of  all  to  gather  a 
fund  of  knowledge  concerning  realities  before  hearing 
philosophical  lectures." 

While  the  course  of  Hamann  and  Kraus  shows 
that  in  its  very  home  the  Critical  Philosophy  met 
with  decided  opposition  even  from  Kant's  personal 
friends,  their  antagonism  has  less  historic  significance 
than  that  of  J.  G.  von  Herder.  Of  all  Kant's  students 
he  was  probably  the  most  brilliant,  and  in  literature 
he  became  the  most  celebrated.  If  the  three  most 
eminent  names  of  Eastern  Prussia,  during  the  second 
half  of  last  century,  were  required,  few,  if  any,  would 
hesitate  to  mention  Kant,  Herder,  and  Hamann. 
When  Herder  was  Kant's  pupil,  the  philosopher  formed 
great  expectations  respecting  him ;  and  Herder's  forty- 
five  volumes  on  theology,  religion,  literature,  art, 
poetry,  history,  and  philosophy,  show  that  the  teacher's 
estimate  of  his  abilities  was  well  founded.  He  deserves 
an  honourable  place  in  literature  beside  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  the  other  distinguished  men  with  whom 
he  associated  in  Weimar,  then  the  German  Athens,  and 
is  worthy  of  the  characteristic  inscription  on  his  tomb, 
"  Light,  Love,  Life." 

There  had  been  much  ardour  in  Herder's  attachment, 
while   a  student,   to    his  favourite  teacher,   and  this 


^1 


i« 


i 


t 


!•; 


^)l 


f 


382 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


U 


inspired  Kant  with  the  hope  that  he  would  use  his 
talents  and  influence  to  advocate  the  Critical  Philoso- 
phy ;  but  in  this  he  was  disappointed. (^")  Herder, 
impressible  as  he  was,  was  too  original,  too  much 
Herder,  to  become  the  disciple  of  another.  What- 
ever he  learned  he  worked  over  into  his  own  pecu- 
liar texture  and  gave  it  the  stamp  of  his  individuality. 
While  with  his  friend  Hamann  he  was  a  great  admirer 
of  the  philosopher's  intellectual  powers,  he  also,  like 
Hamann,  never  became  an  advocate  of  his  system ;  in 
fact,  this  warm  admirer  of  Kant  became  one  of  the 
most  decided,  most  active,  and  most  bitter  opponents 
of  Kantism.  Both  Kant  and  Herder  were  original, 
learned,  and  great,  but  they  had  their  failings ;  both 
were  very  tenacious  of  their  peculiar  views  ;  both  had 
bright  literary  hopes,  and  were  ambitious  ;  and  both 
were  very  sensitive.  Their  early  relation  as  teacher 
and  pupil,  their  warm  attachment,  and  the  high  regard 
of  each  for  the  other's  abilities  and  attainments,  should 
have  made  them  friends  for  life ;  but  a  coldness,  and 
even  bitterness,  sprang  up  between  them,  which  form 
a  painful  contrast  with  their  former  friendship.  Her- 
der professed  to  attack  the  system  and  its  blind 
advocates,  not  the  author;  but  in  assailing  the 
philosophy,  he  was  not  only  unnecessarily  severe,  but 
he  also  cast  considerable  blame  on  Kant  himself,  who 
keenly  felt  the  violent  opposition  of  him  whom  he  had 
been  specially  desirous  of  securing  as  an  adherent. 

Herder's  literary  reputation  made  him  a  central 
figure  in  the  war  waged  against  the  "  Kritik ;"  but  less 
for  this  reason  than  on  account  of  his  personal  re- 
lation to  our  philosopher  is  the  matter  here  considered. 
Kant's  review  of  one  of  Herder's  books — apparently 


HEEDEli  S    EXPERIENCES    IN    WEIMAR. 


383 


favourable,  and  yet  with  a  slighting  air  and  a  vein  of 
satire — wounded  the  sensitive  author,  and  probably 
made  him  more  bitter  in  his  attacks  on  the  Kantian 
philosophy,  but  it  does  not  wholly  explain  his  opposi- 
tion. Herder  was  the  apostle  of  Humanity,  a  word 
which  he  was  constantly  using,  and  whose  broad 
signification,  including  all  the  interests  of  man,  charac- 
terizes his  entire  being  and  tendency.  The  whole  of 
humanity  deeply  interested  him,  also  the  world  with 
its  realities  so  far  as  related  to  man.  The  Critical 
system  was  too  cold  for  him,  ignored  the  heart  too 
much,  and  put  a  priori  speculations  where  he  wanted 
historical  facts.  As  he  sought  the  richness  and  variety 
of  the  tropics,  he  felt  cold  and  solitary  and  lost  in  an 
Iceland,  notwithstanding  its  sublimity.  On  the  other 
hand,  Kant  could  not  appreciate  Herder's  fiery 
imagination,  nor  the  warm  heart  whose  glow  is  felt  in 
all  his  works.  Where  he  demanded  reason,  he  often 
found  fancy ;  hence  the  enthusiasm  in  Herder's  books 
and  the  luxuriance  of  his  style  were  an  offence  to 
the  Critical  Philosopher.  Intellectually  they  were 
antipodes. 

Herder  was  the  president  of  the  Upper  Consistory 
in  Weimar,  and  his  sad  experiences  in  the  examination 
of  candidates  for  the  ministry,  as  well  as  in  many  other 
instances,  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the 
destructive  influences  of  men  who  were  advocates  of 
the  Kantian  system,  especially  those  connected  with 
the  University  of  Jena,  which  was  one  of  the  centres  of 
this  philosophy,  and  where  Reinhold  was  professor. 
At  first  Herder  exonerated  Kant  himself  from  blame, 
and  attributed  the  abuses  to  the  arrogance  and  mis- 
understanding of  the  system  on  the  part  of  his  blind 


\ 


i 


J 


h' 


< 


384 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


t.i 


followers ;  but  afterwards,  when  he  saw  that  Kant  did 
nothing  to  check  the  abuses,  he  censured  him  also. 
Before  the  culmination  of  the  furor  occasioned  by  the 
new  philosophy,  he  defended  Kant  against  the  abuses 
of  his  disciples.  Herder  regarded  his  works  as  calcu- 
lated chiefly  to  fix  the  limits  of  thought,  to  purify  the 
sciences,  and  to  test  the  power  of  the  mind ;  and  not 
as  intended  to  exhaust  the  sciences  or  to  give  the 
contents  of  all  knowledge.  He  thought  the  Kantian 
zealots  made  the  mistake  of  imagining  that  in  these 
works  they  had  that  knowledge  itself,  of  which  the 
great  philosopher  aimed  to  give  only  the  boundaries. 
Herder  therefore  exclaims,  "  If  the  outline  is  taken  for 
the  substance,  the  frame  for  the  picture,  the  vessel  for 
the  contents  ;  and  if  one  then  imagines  that  he  has 
gathered  all  the  treasures  of  knowledge,  what  a 
mistake,  what  an  abuse  !  *'  Acknowledging  that  Kant's 
works  were  admirable  as  a  preparation  for  philosophy, 
he  was  not  willing  to  admit  that  they  gave  to  philo- 
sophy a  completeness  and  perfection  which  could  not 
be  transcended — a  view  which  for  many  Kantians 
was  entirely  too  moderate. 

When,  however,  men  began  to  swear  by  the  words 
of  the  master  without  understanding  them,  and  when 
the  zealots  disputed  fiercely  with  each  other  as  to 
which  one  understood  Kant  aright,  then  not  only 
Herder  but  many  others  also  became  indignant  because 
no  one  made  a  serious  effort  to  check  the  confusion. 
Germany  had  suddenly  been  aroused  by  Kant  from 
its  metaphysical  slumber  and  dreams  ;  but  the  awaken- 
ing was  followed  by  a  wild  intoxication.  A  hint  of 
this  has  already  been  given ;  but  one  must  study  the 
sources  of  the  history  of  the  last  fifteen  years  of  the 


GROUNDS   OP   HIS   OPPOSITION. 


385 


eighteenth  century  in  order  to  form  a  just  conception 
of  the  confusion,  the  contradictions,  the  criminations 
and   recriminations,  the   intolerance    and   arrogance, 
prevalent  among  the  professed  followers  of  the  Kantian 
philosophy.    Herder,  in  the  literary  centre  of  Germany, 
saw  many  evidences  of  this  madness,  and  says  that  the 
intolerance  with  which  the  Kantians,  "  seated  on  their 
universal  tribunal,  speak,  condemn,  praise,  and  reject, 
has   become   as   disgusting   to    the  healthy  part   of 
Germany  as  it  must  be  averse  to  the  tolerant  nature  of 
the  author  of  this  philosophy  and  to  his  thoughtful 
love  of  the  truth.      To  aim,  by  means   of   fire    and 
sword,    scorn  and   derision,    to   introduce  a   Critical 
Philosophy  which  emphatically  disclaims  all  intention 
of    preaching    dogmatism,    is     the    most     miserable 
despotism."     Of  Kant's  works  he  writes,  ''  They  will 
remain.     Their  spirit,  even  if  embodied  in  other  forms 
and  clothed  in  other  words,  will,  in  substance,  continue 
to   work   and  to  live.     It  has  already  accomplished 
much,  and  its  influence  is  seen  in  almost  every  depart- 
ment    of   human  investigation.       Through  Kant  the 
mind  has  received  a  new  impetus,  not  merely  to  sift 
the  old,  but  also  (which  is  the  principal  aim  of  philo- 
sophy)  to  give  a  systematic  arrangement  to  the  sciences 
which  are  peculiarly  human."     But  while  thus  praising 
Kant,  Herder  was  unwilling  to  have  the  claims  of  other 
philosophers  ignored,  and  he  opposed  those  who  spoke 
of  the  Kantian  system  as  wholly  new  and  original,  and 
said  of  its  author,   "  Surely,  his  most  presumptuous 
admirer  will  not  claim  that  everything  in  his  works  is 
new.     In  this  case  it  is  not  proper,  as  has  often  been 
done,  to  place  all  the  philosophers  of  antiquity  on  their 
heads  in  order  that  the  latest  may  alone  stand  on  his 

0  c 


i 


■f 


386 


THE   LIFE   OF  IMMANUEIi  KANT. 


O 


feet."  Herder  claimed  that  much  of  what  Kant 
taught  had  long  ago  been  said  in  other  words,  and 
that  for  many  things  in  the  Critical  Philosophy  the 
way  had  been  prepared  by  men  like  Hume,  Eousseau, 
and  Lambert.  He  says,  "  Kant's  '  Kritik  '  so  deeply 
affects  the  minds  of  the  present  because  the  way  for 
it  had  been  so  well  prepared,  and  because  it  was  able 
to   bring  to   light   a   thousand  existing   but  obscure 

notions.  ('«») 

Herder's  opposition  to  this  philosophy  became  more 
decided  when  he  perceived  the  increase  of  its  abuses, 
and  found  that  some   of  its  advocates  opposed   the 
Christian   religion   in    its   name.     After    Fichte   had 
declared  in  Jena,  "  In  five  years  there  will  be  no  more 
Christian  religion  ;  reason  is  our  religion,"  even  some 
theological  professors  were  led   astray.     Theological 
students,    examined    by    Herder,    gave    impertinent 
answers,  and  a  talented  young  man  wrote  an  article 
against  marriage,  and  at  the  same  time  urged  the  Con- 
sistory  to    give   him    an    appointment   as   a   pastor. 
Sacred   things   were   ridiculed,  and  Christianity   was 
treated   as   a   superstition.     Herder   then   wrote    his 
"  Metakritik "  and  "  Kalligone "  against  the  Critical 
Philosophy.     Anxious  that  Kant  should  do  something 
to  check  the  abuses  of  his   system,  he  said,  "  I  will 
arouse  Kant,  by  means  of  my  writings,  to  declare  him- 
self respecting  the  perversion  of  his  philosophy."     The 
bitterness  of  his  tone  in  opposing  this  system,  he  ex- 
plained  as  follows  :  "  The  Kantian  philosophy  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  ferment;  stupidity  took  the  leaven  for 
the  dough.    Hence  this  indescribable  abuse.    It  is  little 
of  Kant   that  he,  who  knows  better,,  leaves   men   in 
their  error,  and  sacrifices  truth  to  the  vanity  of  having 


hebdeb's  aim. 


387 


established  a  school.  Time  will  reveal  the  truth  in  this 
matter  In  my  position,  it  was  my  duty  to  speak 
agamst  the  injurious  effects  of  this  philosophy  as  loudly 

that  Jr  J  .'"'''''  ''  '^'^^  theVantianst 
that  they  might  hear  me.     A  book  in  a  milder  tone 

would  have  been  without  effect  altogether." 

and  t'oV '*r''  '''^'''''  ^''^''''  ''^^'^^  to  Kant 
and  Weimt;   l^'/r^f  ^^  *^^«  ^PP--^  -^  Jena 

times  TheKw^t"  ^'"^^  '^^  ^  picture  of  the 
t  mes.     The  Kantian  philosophy  had  taken  men  bv 

storm  and  many  thought  that  it  was  final.  Herder  sat 
tha    It  swept  everything  before  it,  and  he  said   "ThI 

deluge^wins:b^t  It^LritsTelTbetfaf: 
Wh  r  W."^*' '' '  ^^^^  '^'  ^«^-  be  made  now! 

comes  ''     TV    .  \"  '''*''  "^"^  ^"°  -'^^  '^^    ^^^n^ 
comes.       This  testimony  of  an  enemy  shows  what  a 

mighty  power  this  system  had  become. 

Kant  was  deeply  pained  by  Herder's  course      The 
prominent  position  of  Herder  in  Weimar,  hrgr'eat^t 
fluencem  literature,  and  his  former  relation  to  Kant" 
made  xt  all  the  harder  for  the  aged  savant  to  befr \t' 
merciless    attacks.      To   the    question,    « Whom   did 

riii  d  .T  n  '"^"^  '^^  °pp°-^*« '  "  ^ol.t 

rephed,     « Certainly  none;  least    of  all    Nicoki   «n^ 

ailst  1  m"  I  T^  "'"^  ^^"*  ^^^  ^"tten  for  or 
against  him.  And  Hasse  says  of  Kant,  «'  Against 
Herder  he  spoke  almost  passionately,  declarinf tW 
He  wanted  to  be  dictator  and  was  atiousTm^ 

The  best  disciples  of  Kant  were   not  those  who 

c  c  2 


i( 


( 


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.'■I 

f , 


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388  THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 

adopted  his  system  without  criticism  pronouBcedjt 
absolute  and  final,  and  aimed  to  transmit  ^t  as  fim^hed 
and  unchangeable  to  future  generations      Such  were 

Se  Kantian'dogmatists  and  ^^^^^^'^^^IZ'l^X 
claim  to  be  true  disciples  on  the  fact  that  ^^^yj^-^ 
accepted  the  words  of  the  master  and  abused  all  o  her s 
who  did  not  do  likewise.     There  were,  however,  others 
^ho  subjected  the  »  Kritik  "  itself  to  severe  tests  and 
tried  to  develop  its  well-estabhshed  P^-P^  '^^^ 
reiecting  the  rest ;  and  although  decried  as  false  dis- 
ciples by  unconditional  Kantians,  they  have  promoted 
S  phLophical  development  which  it  is  the  glory  of 
Kant  to  have  started.     That  men  perverted  his  sys  em 
Certainly  cannot  dim  that  glory,  and  it  would  be  foolish 
to  mike  him  responsible  for  the  folly  and  extravagance 
of  uffoltwers-'But  wasnot  his  failure  to  c,eck  them 

blameworthy?    Why  was  he  f  ^^^^^^  f -^/,^:,^  ^f 
his  philosophy  on  the  part  of  his  disciples  ?     That  he 
wL  aware,  to  Bome  extent,  of  the  disputes  among  his 
Tci^B    and  of  the  confusion  and   offence   created 
thereby,  is  evident  from  his  own  letters ;  and  publicly, 
Ihrougi  the  press,  as  well  as  privately,  through  letters 
earnest  appeals  were  made    to    him    to    give   such 
exZation^B    of  disputed  points    as  would  end  the 
wrangling  about  the  sense  of  his  philosophy ;  and  it 
was  flso  hoped  that  he  would  do  something  to  check 
The  rXant  claims  of  many  of  his  adherents     By  hi. 
IppoTenfs  Kant's  silence    was   attributed   to  selfish 
iCrpart-^arly  to  the  desire  to  found  a  school ; 
Td  it  ^as  claimed  that  if  the  love  of  truth  animated 
Zm  he  would  certainly  break  the  silence,  restore  har- 
Tny.  and  disown  the  abuses  of  his  professed  disciples. 
Wll.  therefore,  some  persons  were  loudly  extolhng 


CAUSE    OF    KANT*S    SILENCE. 


389 


Ills  merits,  there  were  others  who  as  bitterly  de- 
nounced  his  course  in  these  disputes;  and  those 
who  blamed  him  for  his  silence  were  not  confined  to  the 
opponents  of  his  system. 

If  we  place  ourselves  in  Kant's  position,  we  shall  find 
that  there  was  much  to  excuse  that  silence,  even  if  it 
cannot  be  wholly  justified.    Although  he  was  aware  that 
there  were  abuses,   he  could  hardly  have  known  their 
full  extent.     Not  only  was  Konigsberg  isolated,  but  he 
himself  withdrew  more  from  society  as  old  age  advanced. 
His  favourite  reading,  as  we  have  seen,  was  not  philo- 
sophical  literature,  and  he  rarely  read  what  was  written 
for  or  against  his  system,  and  greatly  disliked  contro- 
versy.    Those  in  his  own  city  who  were  in  more  imme- 
•diate   contact  with  the   world   could   see  the  abuses 
better  than  he  did ;  and  in  a  literary  centre,  such  as 
Weimar,  they  were  far  more  apparent  than  in  Konigs- 
berg.     Then  it  should  be  remembered  that  Kant  was 
anxious  to  complete  his  various  literary  projects,  and 
was  devoting  his  energies  so  exclusively  to  them  as  to 
neglect  other  matters ;  and  even  after  devoting  all  his 
time  and  energies  to  his  literary  plans,  he  had  to  leave 
one  of  the  most  important  unfinished,  as  his  last  manu- 
script shows.     Besides,  he  was  really  unable  to  enter 
and  master  thoughts  and  systems  foreign  to  his  own, 
and  his  friends  would  read  on  the  philosophical  disputes 
of  the  day  and  then  give  him  their  views.      The  whole 
conflict,  therefore,  lay  largely  beyond  the  sphere  of  the 
thoughts  of  him   whom   it  concerned  most.     Kant's 
physical  and  intellectual  condition  was  such,  at  this 
time,  that  he  found  it  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  his 
health  and  mental  labours,  to  avoid  excitement.     For 
some  years  before  his  death  he  was  really  unfit  to  enter 


^' 


I 


'f. 


% 


390 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


the  controversy,  and  he  declared  that  he  must  leave  to 
others  the  explanation  and  defence  of  his  system. 

In  a  letter  to  Reinhold,  in  1788,  Kant  gives  a  hint 
of  his  feelings  respecting  the  controversy  occasioned  by 
his  philosophy,  though  at  that  time  it  was  only  in  its 
beginning.     In    speaking   of    the    dissensions    among 
those  who  reject  the  "  Kritik,"  he  says  that  it  is  only 
necessary  to  watch  them  quietly,  and   perhaps  take 
notice  occasionally  of  the  principal  errors,  but  other- 
wise  to  pursue    one's  plan    uninterruptedly,    and  to 
cherish  the  hope  that  in  the  course  of  time  everything 
will  move  along  in  the  right  track.     This- implies  con- 
fidence  that  the  discovery  of  truth  would  be  the  result 
of  the  contentions.     That  Kant  had  a  degree  of  satis- 
faction in  the  disputes  occasioned  by  the  "  Kritik,"  is 
true.     A  year  later  he  wrote  to  Reinhold,  "  In  reality, 
the  general  excitement  occasioned  and  still  promoted 
by  the  '  Kritik,'  together  with  all  the  alliances  formed 
against  it  (though  its  opponents  disagree  and  will  con- 
tinue to  do  so),  can  only  be  agreeable  to  me,  for  by  this 
means  interest  in  the  subject  is  maintained.     Then  the 
perpetual  misinterpretations  and  perversions  give  occa- 
sion to  make  the  expressions,  here  and  there,  which 
might  lead  to  a  misunderstanding,  more  definite  ;  con- 
sequently, I  fear  nothing  in  the  end  from  these  attacks, 
even  if  they  are  treated  with  silence."     He  hoped  that 
the  conflict  would  keep  the  subject  prominently  before 
the  pubhc  until  the  truth  finally  triumphed,  which  for 
Kant  meant  the  victory  of  his  system. 

The  temporary  excitement  occasioned  by  the  "  Kritik" 
was,  indeed,  an  evidence  of  Kant's  influence,  but  it  was 
only  the  foam  and  the  waves  on  the  surface  of  the 
great  deep.     On  thoughtful  minds,  on  literature,  on 


INFLUENCE    OF   THE    "  KRITTK." 


391 


universities   and  other  institutions,   he    produced   an 
effect  which  was  deep  and  broad  and  lasting,  and  it  may 
safely  be  said  that  no  other  factor  in  modern  German 
literature  has  been  so  potent  as  his  philosophy.    Often 
where  it  is  hardly  apparent,  this  influence  is  deepest 
and  most  universal,  because  it  is  the  influence  of  prin- 
ciples  which  determine  foundations  as  well  as  super- 
structures.    So  thorough  and  general  was  the  revolu- 
tion in  thought  which  Kant  produced,  that  scholars 
were  obliged  to  take  sides  for  or  against  his  philosophy, 
or  else  to  subject  the  "  Kritik  "  itself  to  severe  critil 
cism,  and  winnow  the  chaff*  from  the  wheat.     Every 
philosopher   since   his  day,    whatever   else   he   might 
neglect,  has  been  constrained,  first  of  all,  to  determine 
his  relation  to  Kant ;  and  even  when  other  philosophers 
temporarily  obscured  the  name  of  Kant,  they  really 
began  with  him  and  largely   built  upon  his   system. 
While  others  prepared  the  way  for  the  "  Kritik,"  that 
work  contains  the  seed  from  which  German  metaphysic 
sprang.     The  effort  necessary  to  master  its  contents 
made  the  book  a  discipline  for  thinkers,  a  test  of  their 
speculative  powers,  and  the  means  of  strengthening 
their   intellects.      The   epoch    in   thought,    which    it 
created,  contains  the  most  eminent  names  in  modern 
metaphysics,  and  Rosenkranz  says,  "  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  history  of  Greek  philosophy  from  Anaxa- 
goras  to  Aristotle,  the  history  of  philosophy  furnishes 
no  example  of  such  rapid  development  of  speculation  as 
that  produced  by  those  well-matched  heroes,   Kant, 
Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel."      Wald  affirmed  in  his 
funeral  oration,  that  Kant  had  effected  a  greater  revolu- 
tion in  metaphysics  than  Newton  had  accomplished  in 
physics. 


f 


w  , 

V 


392 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMAKUEL    KANT. 


■li 


From  the  hundreds  of  other  evidences  of  the  broad 
and  deep  influence  of  the  Critical  Philosophy,  only  the 
testimony  of  a  few  cotemporaries  can  here  be  given. 
One   writes  concerning  Kant's  principles,    "I  found 
these  principles,  especially  the  moral  ones,  in  nurseries, 
in  schools,  in  the  shops  of  mechanics,  among  soldiers, 
at  the  desk  both  of  the  merchant  and  of  his  clerk,  in 
the  temple  of  the  Christian,  and  in  the  synagogue  of 
the  Jews."  {''')     Bouterwek  says,  "No  other  German 
author  of  the   eighteenth    century    ruled   with  such 
imposing   authority   over   superior   minds;    no   other 
writer  found  among  his  opponents  so  many  admirers ; 
and  there  was  not  another  who  so  powerfully  affected 
all  the  sciences,  and  also  the  moral  tendency  of  German 
mental    activity,    as  Immanuel   Kant.'*     Another  co- 
temporary    declares,    "In    a    short     time    the    new 
philosophy  exerted  an  almost  magic  influence  on  all 
the  sciences,   and  gained  friends  and  adherents  even 
among  the  classes  which  did  not  devote  themselves  to 
science  at   all,  or,  at  least,  not  to   metaphysics.     It 
aroused  a  spirit   of  thorough  philosophic  inquiry  in 
Germany,    of  which   the    age   would   not   have   been 
thought  capable ;  and  it  contains  such  an  inestimable 
Avealth  of  ideas  and  opinions,  that  until  now  only  a 
small  part  of  this  material  can  be  regarded  as  having 
been  appropriated,   and  from  it  new  germs  of  know- 
ledge may  yet  be  developed  in  the  remote  future."  (^^^) 
Kant's  fame  spread  to  foreign  lands  during  his  life, 
but  the  influence  of  his  philosophy  outside  of  Germany 
was   very   limited.     Although   French  journals   men- 
tioned his  name  and  referred  to  his  system,  the  Critical 
Philosophy  was    not   introduced   into   France   till   in 
1801,  when  Charles  Villers  began  the  pubhcation  of  a 


THE    CRITICAL   PHILOSOPHY    IN    ENGLAND. 


393 


work  on  the  subject,  of  which,  however,  only  the  first 
volume  appeared,  the  demand  probably  not  being 
sufficient  to  justify  the  completion  of  the  whole.  The 
disturbed  state  of  that  country  was,  no  doubt,  largely 
the  occasion  of  this  neglect  of  the  great  German  meta- 
physician. Although  its  principal  thoughts  were  also 
discussed  in  other  French  philosophical  works,  his 
''Kritik"  made  but  little  impression  on  France. 
More  attention  was  paid  to  it  in  the  Netherlands. 
The  Critical  Philosophy  was  taught  in  Amsterdam  by 
Paul  Van  Hammert,  who  in  1792  issued  a  compend  of 
this  system,  and  in  1796-98  published  a  work  on  it  in 
four  volumes.  In  1802  the  "  Kritik  "  was  translated 
into  Dutch. 

As  early  as  1795  an  effort  was  made  by  F.  A.  Nitzsch 
to  introduce  the   Kantian  philosophy  into   England. 
He  had  studied  under  Kant,  and  had  a  good  know- 
ledge of  his  system,  on  which  he  probably  dehvered 
the  first  lectures  and  published  the  first  book  in  the 
English  language.     To  Professor  Kraus,  who  was  his 
friend,  we  are  indebted  for  a  description  of  his  first 
lecture  in  1795.     "  All  through  London  Nitzsch  had 
sent  circulars  announcing  a  course  of  lectures  on  the 
perceptive  and  reasoning  faculties  of  the  mind,    ac- 
cording to  the  principles  of  Professor  Kant.     In  this 
prospectus,  of  which  he  sent  me  a  copy,  he  offered,  in 
order  to  secure  confidence  in  his  proposition,  to  deliver 
three  lectures  gratis,  and  to  answer  all  the  London 
philosophers  who,  after  hearing  him,   might  propose 
objections.     When,  on  the  3rd  of  March,  in  this  year, 
at  8  p.m.,  Nitzsch  for  the  first  time  entered  the  lecture- 
room,  he  found,  what  the  equipages  at  the  door  had 
led  him  to  expect,  a  multitude  of  aged  lords,  ministers, 


\t 


f 


M 


394 


THR    LIFE    OF    TM MANUEL    KANT. 


SUBSIDENCE    OF    ENTHUSIASM. 


395 


young  scholars,  and  finely  dressed  ladies.  For  an 
hour  and  a  half  he  read  the  first  part  of  his  introduc- 
tion, which  had  been  well  prepared,  and  was  appa- 
rently received  favourably ;  but  scarcely  had  he 
finished  when  a  discussion  of  two  whole  hours  arose, 
during  which  he  was  obliged  to  defend  his  position. 
In  this  he  succeeded  well ;  and  the  result  of  this  and 
the  two  following  lectures  was  that  his  whole  course 
of  thirty-six  lectures,  which  had  been  announced  for 
three  guineas,  was  successful.  He  completed  it  a  few 
weeks  ago  with  honour,  and  in  this  month  of  October 
will  begin  a  second  course.  In  the  meanwhile  he  is 
having  an  abstract  of  his  lectures  published  by  sub- 
scription." C') 

Professor  Kraus  received  his  account  from  Mtzscli 
himself,  who  seems  to  have  had  sanguine  expectations 
which  were  not  realized.  He  was  not  successful  in  his 
efibrt  to  introduce  the  Critical  system  into  England, 
and  Borowski  says,  "  Nitzsch  was  laughed  at  in 
London."  Dr.  A.  F.  M.  Willich  made  a  similar 
attempt,  which  was  also  unsuccessful.  Q^*)  In  1797 
and  1798  John  Richardson  published  two  books  in 
England  on  Kant's  Philosophy,  but  they  also  failed  to 
excite  an  interest  in  the  subject. 

Kant's  fame  crossed  the  sea,  and  became  known  in 
America  during  the  philosopher's  life.  An  ency- 
clopedia published  in  Philadelphia,  in  1798,  contains 
the  following  :  "  It  is  certain  that  Professor  Kant  of 
Konigsberg  has  gained  a  great  reputation  by  means  of 
his  original  view  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  powers 
of  man,  and  that  the  philosophers  of  Germany  are  as 
devotedly  attached  to  him  as  the  natural  scientists  are 
to    Newton,   or    the    scholastics    to   Aristotle.     The 


Kantian  philosophy  is  therefore  a  subject  which  can- 
not be  omitted  from  our  encyclopedia."  (^")  In 
Russia,  Italy,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  other  countries, 
Kant  was  also  known.  A  letter  from  Bishop 
Lindblom,  in  Sweden,  addresses  him,  "  Vir  omnibus 
titulis  major,"  and  calls  him  "Princeps  philoso- 
phorum." 

In  spite  of  his  great  reputation,  Kant  was  the 
recipient  of  comparatively  few  honours  from  learned 
bodies,  and  he  made  no  parade  of  those  which  he  did 
receive.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Berlin,  and  also  of  that  in  St.  Petersburg, 
and  he  was  invited  to  become  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  Sienna,  and  to  take  part  in 
its  work ;  he  had  been  proposed  as  a  member  of  the 
National  Institute  of  Sciences  in  Paris,  but  his  death 
occurred  before  his  election.  All  these  honours  were 
conferred  on  him  after  the  "  Kritik  "  appeared. 

The  excitement  created  by  the  new  philosophy  was 
too  intense  to  last,  and  already  before  the  death  of 
its  author  all  parties  were  disposed  to  view  it  more 
calmly  and  more  critically.  Fichte's  Idealism  was  an 
effort  to  develop  some  of  Kant's  principles  and  to 
supersede  his  philosophy  in  part,  if  not  to  supplant  it 
altogether.  It  attracted  much  of  the  attention  which 
had  hitherto  been  bestowed  on  the  Critical  Philosophy ; 
and  while  it  introduced  a  new  element  of  confusion 
and  discord,  it  also  did  much  to  effect  a  more  critical 
investigation  of  the  principles  of  the  "  Kritik."  Some 
who  had  been  warm  advocates  of  the  Kantian  Criti- 
cism now  forsook  it,  among  them  Reinhold,  who 
had  done  so  much  for  the  popularity  and  defence  of 
the  ''  Kritik."     Within  four  months  after  Kant's  death 


I 


396 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


THE    RETURN   TO   KANT. 


397 


Bouterwek  wrote  that  the  Kantian  intoxication  was 
over,  and  that  there  was  danger  that  the  prevalent 
tone  would  so  depreciate  his  intellect  as  to  put  it  on  a 
level  with  ordinary  minds.  There  were  at  that  time 
enthusiastic  followers  of  Fichte,  just  as  there  had  been 
and  still  were  of  Kant.  Their  treatment  of  the 
Critical  Philosopher  is  evident  from  a  remark  of  the 
writer  just  quoted,  **  It  is  well  known  that  the  youths 
of  the  new  school  of  Idealism  speak  of  Kant  as  only  a 
Philister.*' 

Soon  other  philosophers  arose  and  gathered  dis- 
ciples, and  Schelling  and  Hegel  became  the  meta- 
physical heroes.  Kantian  principles  were,  however, 
still  powerful,  and  many  who  had  been  trained  in  the 
Critical  Philosophy  occupied  important  positions  of 
trust  during  and  after  the  wars  with  France  ;  but  this 
philosophy  gradually  lost  its  adherents,  till  at  last 
Kant  was  neglected. ('^^)  But  about  thirty  years  ago 
a  revival  of  the  study  of  Kant  began,  and  since  that 
time  the  Kantian  literature  has  grown  to  such  vast 
proportions  as  to  suggest  a  parallel  with  the  close  of 
last  century.  Naturalists,  as  well  as  metaphysicians, 
and,  in  fact,  scholars  of  every  class,  favour  a  return 
to  Kant,  and  regard  the  renewed  study  of  the 
"  Kritik  "  as  the  condition  for  a  new  start  in  philo- 
sophy ;  and  philosophers  again  speak  of  themselves  as 
Kantians,  which,  of  course,  does  not  mean  that  they 
follow  Kant  implicitly.  Many  thinkers  want  to  start 
with  him  ;  they  adopt  some  of  his  conclusions  while 
rejecting  others,  and  favour  especially  his  critical 
method.  Some  of  those  who  are  ready  to  take  his 
name,  differ  from  him  materially  on  important 
points.  {^^'^)       The    conviction    is    universal,   that   he 


must  be  used  critically,  in  order  that  he  may  be 
transcended.  "  The  Return  to  Kant,"  which  has  be- 
come the  watchword  of  philosophers,  wants  to  make 
him  the  starting-point,  so  as  to  enable  philosophy  to 
attain  that  goal  which  is  a  matter  of  hope,  but  not 
yet  of  realization.  The  revival  of  the  study  of  Kant, 
the  hopes  centred  in  the  Critical  Philosophy  by 
scholars  in  various  departments  of  learning,  the 
numerous  recent  editions  of  his  "  Kritik,"  and  the 
vast  literature  on  this  work,  are  among  the  most 
significant  indications  of  the  deeper  tendencies  of 
German  thought. 


i 


398 


THE   LIFE   OF  IMMANUEL  KANT. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


I J 


I  i 


CORRESPONDENCE   AND   CORRESPONDENTS. 

Small  number  of  Kant's  letters — Numerous  correspondents  — 
Lambert — Moses  Mendelssohn— Herz — Erhard — Maria  von 
Herbert — J.  G.  Fichte — Kiesewetter — Jang  Stilling. 

When  we  consider  Kant's  literary  activity  of  more 
than  fifty  years,  we  are  surprised  to  find  that  so  few 
of  his  letters,  only  about  seventy  in  all,  are  extant. 
That  there  are  no  more  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  he  neglected  his  correspondence ;  then,  all  of 
his  earher  letters  and  many  of  the  later  ones  have  been 
lost.  In  his  letters  Kant  discusses  metaphysics,  and 
refers  to  his  literary  labours  and  personal  affairs ;  but 
we  look  in  vain  for  that  confidence,  intimacy,  and 
affection,  which  are  common  in  the  correspondence  of 
friends.  Many  of  the  letters  written  to  him  remained 
unanswered,  others  were  neglected  for  a  long  time. 
Nor  was  he  careful  to  preserve  the  letters  received, 
and  he  is  said  not  to  have  left  among  his  literary 
remains  a  single  letter  of  his  learned  correspondence. 
After  he  had  become  celebrated,  he  received  so  many 
communications  that  they  were  an  annoyance  and 
a  burden  to  him,  and  one  of  his  biographers  says, 
"  In  his  last  years  he  received  many  letters,  from 
many  places,  and  had  to   pay  much   postage,  which 


4irS    CORRESPONDENCE    BURDENSOME. 


399 


greatly  displeased  him.     Once  he  said  to  me  that  celeb- 
rity causes  much   trouble.      Continuous   correspond- 
ence,    properly    speaking,     he     probably     had    with 
no   one."     His   fame  brought  him   letters  from  Hol- 
land, Sweden,  England,  France,  Switzerland,  Austria, 
and  other  lands,  as  well  as   Germany.     Many  of  his 
correspondents    revealed    an    unbounded    confidence 
in  him,  and  treated  him  as  an  oracle.      Some  of  them 
sought  a  solution  of  intellectual  and  moral  difficulties, 
while  others  asked  advice  on  subjects  which  did  not 
interest  him ;  he  was  requested  to  distribute  lottery 
tickets,  to  secure  subscribers  for  publications,  to  read 
and  criticize    essays,  and   to  do  other  things   which 
were   both  disagreeable   and  robbed  him  of  precious 
time.     A  medical   professor  in    Halle   wrote   to   him 
repeatedly,  in  the   name  of  several    members  of  the 
medical  faculty,  to  inquire  whether  he  regarded  vaccina- 
tion as  moral  or  immoral,  a  question  much  discussed 
at  that  time.     A  count  in  Silesia,  who  called  one  of 
Kant's  books  on  morals  "  my  compend,"  wrote  to  ask 
him  whether  it  would  be  morally  right  to  have  the 
lady   vaccinated  whom   he   expected  soon  to   marry. 
"  Do  let  me  know  as  soon  as  possible  what  the  (moral) 
law  says."     The  annoyance,  much  augmented  by  the 
fact  that  so   many  letters  were  not  prepaid,  at  last 
became  so  great  that  he  was  on  the  point  of  resolving 
not  to  accept  any  letters  unless  he  recognized  their 
authors  by  the  handwriting  or  seals. 

Kant's  letters  have  already  been  so  extensively  used 
in  this  biography  that  little  more  need  be  said  of  them. 
The  two  which  were  written  to  Lambert  are  long  and 
weighty,  and  have  been  found  valuable  in  tracing  the 
Critical  idea  ;  they  are  the  most  profound  of  his  entire 


ir. 


i 


400 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


\- 


correspondence,  and  their  style  is  similar  to  that  in 
his  metaphysical  works.  J.  H.  Lambert  was  an  auto- 
math  who,  in  spite  of  great  obstacles,  became  one  of 
the  most  prominent  German  scholars  of  the  day,  and 
it  was  said  that  from  Leibnitz  till  his  time  there  had 
not  been  a  more  learned  man  in  Berlin.  He  was 
eminent  in  mathematics,  physics,  astronomy,  and  meta- 
physics, and  in  analytical  power  was  probably  not 
surpassed  by  any  of  his  cotemporaries.(^^^)  He  never 
met  Kant;  but  the  fact  that  each  had  published  a 
work  on  cosmogony  led  to  a  correspondence  which 
extended  from  1765-70.  Not  only  had  they  writ- 
ten on  the  same  subject,  but  their  cosmological 
views,  formed  independently  of  each  other,  were  re- 
markably alike ;  their  specialities  were  also  the  same, 
and  both  were  mathematical  as  well  as  metaphysical. 
Lambert  had  a  very  exalted  opinion  of  Kant,  and  says 
in  his  first  letter,  "  You,  sir,  have  looked  with  a  keen 
astronomical  eye  into  the  firmament,  and  have  investi- 
gated its  depths  and  the  order  prevailing  therein." 
Kant  also  had  a  very  high  regard  for  Lambert,  who  at 
that  time  was  the  more  celebrated  of  the  two ;  and  he 
speaks  of  the  remarkable  agreement  with  himself  in 
method,  which  he  had  frequently  noticed  in  his  works, 
and  declared  that  Lambert  was  that  philosopher  with 
whom,  of  all  men,  he  had  the  greatest  similarity  in 
thought.  They  had  agreed  to  co-operate  in  meta- 
physics, and  expected  much  from  this  union  of  effort ; 
but  this  hope  was  frustrated  by  the  early  death  of 
Lambert. 

From  Kant  to  Moses  Mendelssohn  we  have  four 
letters,  chiefly  on  learned  subjects,  written  between 
1766  and  1783.     The  correspondence  of  these  two  men 


MOSES    MENDELSSOHN. 


401 


is  peculiarly  interesting  from  the  fact  that  one  was 
the   most    popular   of  the   "Popular''    philosophers, 
while  the  other  was  the  most  eminent  of  the  speculative. 
As  Mendelssohn  had  gained  celebrity  long  before  Kant,' 
he  did  his  speculative  friend  good  service  by  intro- 
ducing him  favourably  to  the  literary  public  by  means 
of  notices  of  his  works.     The  fact  that  both  had  con- 
tended,  in  1763,  for  the  prize  offered   by  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Sciences  for  the  best  dissertation  on  "  The 
Evidences  of   the   Metaphysical  Sciences,"    led    to   a 
correspondence  between  the  two  philosophers.     While 
Mendelssohn  admired  the  metaphysical  depth  of  Kant, 
the  latter  admired  Mendelssohn's  popular  elements,' 
especially   the   clearness    and   elegance    of  his    style' 
saying,  "  There  are  only  a  few  so  fortunate  as  to  be 
able  to  think  for  themselves  and   put  themselves  in 
the  place  of  others,  who,  at  the  same  time,  can  present 
their  thoughts   so  appropriately.     There   is   but  one 
Mendelssohn.' '      And   to    his   pupil   and   friend,   Dr. 
Marcus   Herz,  Kant   wrote   respecting    Mendels'sohn, 
"To    have    here   in    Kcinigsberg    such    a    man   as    a 
permanent   and   daily  companion— one  mth  so  gentle 
a  spirit,  such  good-humour,  and  so  clear  a  head— would 
give  my  soul  that  nourishment  of  which  I  am  here 
wholly  deprived." 

Mendelssohn  had  received  an  enthusiastic  account 
of  Kant  from  Dr.  Herz,  who  gratefully  mentioned  his 
indebtedness  to  his  teacher  for  the  instruction  received, 
and  particularly  for  the  personal  influence  exerted  by 
him  during  their  friendly  intercourse.  In  writing  to 
Kant,  Mendelssohn  says  of  Herz,  "He  has  a  clear 
understanding,  a  regulated  imagination,  and  a  certain 
subtlety  of   mind  which  seems  to  be   peculiar  to  that 

D  d 


f 


402 


TBE    LIFE    OF   IM MANUEL   KANT. 


people.(''')     But  what  a  good  fortune  it  was  for  him 
that  these  natural  endowments  were  so  early  led  in  the 
way  of  truth.     How  many  who  did  not  have  this  good 
fortune  were  left  to  themselves  in  the  immeasurable 
region  of  truth  and  error,  and  have  been  obliged  to 
consume  their  valuable  time  and  their  best  powers  in 
a  hundred  vain  attempts,   so  that   they  lacked  both 
time   and   strength   to  pursue  the    road   which    they 
found  at  last  after  much  experiment  ?     If  only  before 
my  twentieth  year  I  had  had  a  Kant !  "     When  Kant 
sent  him  his  Inaugural  Dissertation,  Mendelssohn  wrote 
his  views  respecting  it  to  the  author,  stating  that  he 
would  not  have  ventured  to  criticize  it  so  freely  had 
not  Herz  assured  him  that  Kant  would  not  find  fault 
with  such  frankness.     ''  Rare  as  this  trait  is    among 
imitators,  it  is  frequently  a  characteristic  of  those  who 
think  for  themselves.     He  who  has  himself  experienced 
how  difficult  it  is  to  find  the  truth,  and  to  convince 
himself  that  it  has  been  found,  is  always  more  inclined 
to  be  tolerant  towards  those  who  differ  from  him." 

Kant's  last  letter  to  Mendelssohn  speaks  of  the 
''  Kritik,"  and  he  desires  the  opinion  of  his  correspon- 
dent  on  the  following  points  :  first,  whether  his  views 
of  analytic  and  synthetic  judgments  are  correct; 
second,  whether  it  is  true,  as  the  "  Kritik  "  asserts,  that 
d  priori  we  cannot  judge  synthetically  of  anything 
except  the  formal  condition  of  a  possible  experience ; 
third,  whether  the  last  conclusion  of  the  ''  Kritik  "  is 
legitimate,  namely,  that  all  possible  speculative  d  priori 
knowledge  does  not  extend  beyond  objects  of  possible 
experience.  Kant  suggests,  as  still  undecided,  an 
important  question :  how  it  happens  that  reason  is 
impelled  to  go  beyond  its  proper  sphere— a  question 


MENDELSSOHN   AND   THE    ''  KRmK." 


403 


whose  solution,  he  thinks,  is  not  very  difficult.  These 
points,  suggested  by  Kant  two  years  after  the  "  Kritik  '* 
appeared,  involve  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  that 
book.  Can  it  be  possible  that  he  had  any  doubts  re- 
specting these  problems  ?  We  are  not  able  to  state 
why  he  desired  Mendelssohn's  suggestions  on  them. 

In  1777  Mendelssohn  visited  Konigsberg,  met  Kant, 
and  heard  some  of  his  lectures.     Writing   to  Herz, 
Kant  says,  "Yesterday  Mendelssohn  did  me  the  honour 
to  attend  two  of  my  lectures,  a  la  fortune  du  pot  as  one 
might  say,  for  the  table  was  not  prepared  for  so  emi- 
nent a  guest."    Their  personal  intercourse  drew  the  two 
eminent  men  nearer  each  other,  but  neither  that  nor 
their  correspondence  seems  to  have  had  any  influence 
in  assimilating  their  philosophical  views.     A  few  years 
after  the   "  Kritik  "  appeared,  Mendelssohn,  in  intro- 
duciDg  a  young  man  to  Kant,  wrote,  "  Without  other 
recommendations,    every   youth   who    strives    to   get 
wisdom  recommends  himself  to  you.*'     Having  heard 
the  rumour  that  Kant  intended  to  visit  Pyrmont,  for 
the  sake  of  his  health,  and  expected  to  pass  through 
Berhn,  he  says,  "  You  would  find  open  arms  in  BerHn 
and  also  many  an  open  heart ;  and  among  others,  you 
would  find  a  man  who  is  your  admirer,  without  being 
able  to  follow  you.     For  many  years  I  have  been  dead 
to   metaphysics.     My  nervousness  forbids   all  severe 
application,  and  in  the  meanwhile  I  occupy  myself  with 
less  difficult  labours,  some  specimens  of  which  I  shall 
have  the  pleasure  of  sending  you.   Your '  Kritik  of  Pure 
Reason  '  is  for  me  a  criterion  of  my  health.     As  often 
as  I  imagine  that  I  have  gained  some  strength  I  read 
in  this  nerve-destroying  work,  and  I  am  not  altogether 
hopeless  of   mastering   it   in   this  life."     But  he  did 

D  d  2 


( 


v 


i  . 
t  If 

a'' 


'.      ! 


J 


J 


» 


III 


i'l' 


I  - 


404 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT 


not  master  it,  the  difficulties  of  the  book  being  too 
great  for  him  ;  he,  however,  consoled  himself  with  the 
reflection  that  his  loss  was  not  very  serious.  He  wrote 
to  EHza  Keimarus,  ''  It  pleased  me  to  learn  from  Mr. 
Kudolph  that  your  brother  does  not  think  much  of  the 
«  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason.'  For  my  part,  I  must 
admit  that  I  do  not  understand  it ;  therefore  it  is  a 
satisfaction  to  know  that  if  I  go  hence  without  under- 
standing  this  book,  I  shall  not  lose  much.'' 

While  these  tAVO  leaders  of  the  rising  and  waning 
schools    of  philosophy   had  much   in    common,    their 
stand-points   were    too  different  to    enable    them   to 
appreciate  each  other.     Their  philosophic  friendship, 
for  it    never  was  anything  else,  was  based  on  their 
mutual  interest  in  philosophy,  not  on  similarity  of  views. 
Mendelssohn,  the  last  eminent  representative   of  the 
popular    "Common    Sense"    philosophy,    could    not 
understand  Kant ;  and  the  herald  of  the  philosophy 
of  Reason  could  not  esteem  highly  the  school  which 
the   Jewish  philosopher    represented,   and  which  the 
Kantian  Criticism  was  intent  on  destroying.     Hamann 
says  of  Kant,  ''  He  regards  Mendelssohn's  lectures  as 
a  system  of  illusion ;  they  are  to  him  similar  to  Men- 
delssohn's description  of  a  lunatic." 

Nineteen  letters  from  Kant  to  Dr.  Marcus  Herz,  a 
much  larger  number  than  to  any  other  person,  have 
been  published.  They  were  written  from  1770-97, 
and  like  those  to  Lambert  and  Mendelssohn,  they 
belong  to  the  most  interesting  period  of  Kant's  hfe  ; 
besides  the  scholarly  subjects  discussed,  they  contain 
numerous  personal  references  and  allusions  to  miscel- 
laneous affairs.  In  tracing  the  genesis  of  the ''  Kritik  " 
they  have  been  found  very  important.     Herz  was  one 


DR.    MATICUS    HKRZ. 


405 


of  Kant's  favourite  students,  and  in  one  of  his  letters 
the  philosopher  distinguishes  him  among  his  pupils 
for  that  noble  gratitude  which  so  many  lacked,  and 
says,  "What  can  be  more  comforting,  when  one  is 
about  to  leave  this  world,  than  to  perceive  that  he  has 
not  lived  in  vain,  since  some,  if  only  a  few,  have  been 
developed  into  good  men."  From  another  letter  to 
Herz  it  is  evident  that  Kant  did  not  desire  to  have  his 
correspondence  published.  Speaking  of  the  proposed 
publication  of  Moser's  correspondence,  and  of  his  own 
letters  to  him,  he  says,  "  I  also  pray  earnestly  that  my 
letters,  which  were  never  intended  for  publication, 
may  be  entirely  omitted." 

Dr.  Herz,  after  completing  his'  studies  at  Konigs- 
berg,  resided  in  Berlin,  where  he  practised  medicine, 
and  also  delivered  lectures  on  logic  and  metaphysics 
before  mixed  audiences.  Minister  von  Zedlitz  being 
one  of  his  hearers ;  his  practice,  however,  gradually 
drew  him  away  from  philosophical  studies.  He  had 
considerable  influence,  and  used  it  to  spread  the  fame 
of  his  beloved  teacher  in  the  capital.  His  exceedingly 
beautiful  and  cultured  young  wife,  Henrietta  Herz, 
made  her  brilliant  drawing-room  the  resort  for  the  lite- 
rary luminaries  of  Berlin,  and  men  like  Schleiermacher, 
the  Schlegels,  and  the  Humboldts,  delighted  to  frequent 
her  house ;  and  the  favourite  of  Kant  was  eclipsed  by 
the  glory  of  this  German  Recamier,  as  she,  who  pro- 
bably surpassed  the  French  original,  has  been  called. 

Of  the  correspondence  with  Dr.  J.  B.  Erhard,  two 
of  Kant's  letters,  written  respectively  in  1792  and 
1799,  and  quite  a  number  of  Erhard's,  have  been 
preserved.  The  relation  of  this  correspondent — who 
was  both  a  philosopher  and  physician — to  Kant  is  a 


h 


il 


I 

/  I 

X 


406 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


;il 


I 


good  illustration  of  the  influence  of  the  metaphysician 
over  young  men.     Erhard  addressed  him  for  the  first 
time  in  1786,  when  twenty  years  old,  calling  him  his 
"most   honoured   teacher  and  friend" — teacher  by 
means    of   his   books,    for    he   had   never   seen   him. 
Erhard  acknowledges  that  it  was  to  his  influence  that 
he  was  indebted  for  strength  "  not  to  be  frightened 
by  the  mists  of  prejudice,  nor  to  be  misled  by  the 
glitter  of  dogmatism,  but  to  be  secure  against  the 
darts   of  the   philosophers   a   la   mode,  and   able   to 
penetrate  to  the  light  of  genuine  philosophy."     From 
Mendelssohn  he    had   received    his   first  impulses  to 
reflection,  then  he  became  a  devout  Wolfian,  and  de- 
termined to  do  his  utmost  to  fortify  that  philosopher's 
position  ;  and  he  states  that  he  took  up  the  "  Kritik" 
with  more  bitterness  than  he  had  ever  felt  toward  any 
other  book,  and  began  to  read  it  with  a  view  of  refuting 
it ;  but  instead  of  this  result,  the  bold  young  man  was 
made,   by   the    "  Kritik,"    a   devoted   Kantian.      His 
purpose  in  writing  was  to  learn  whether  some  arrange- 
ment could  be  made  for  him  to  study  under  Kant  in 
Konigsberg.     Such  an   arrangement  was  made,  and 
he  formed  for  his  teacher  the  warmest  attachment, 
which  lasted  during  life.     Of  his  stay  in  Konigsberg 
he  says,  "  Here  I  enjoyed  blessed  days  in  my  inter- 
course with  Kant.     The  manner  in  which  I  spoke  of 
his  books  seemed  to  surprise  him.     I  asked  of  him  no 
explanations,  but  only  thanked  him  for  the  joy  which 
his  works  had  given  me,  and  spoke  to  him  no  word  of 
flattery.     This  ease  in  understanding  him,  which  found 
expression  in  my  conversation,  at  first  seemed  to  make 
him  doubt  whether  I  had  read  his  works  ;  but  we  soon 
understood  each  other,  and  were  mutually  agreeable 


DR.    ERHARD. 


407 


companions."     He  was  greatly  encouraged  by  Kant's 
friendship,  and  it  was  certainly  very  flattering ;  in  few 
of  the  great  man's  letters  is  his  attachment  so  marked 
as  in  those  to  Erhard.     Of  course,  we  must  not  expect 
him  to  be  prompt  in  replying  even  to  this  warm  friend, 
and  in  his  first  letter  he  apologizes  for  delaying  his 
answer  a  whole  year.     Kant  pleads  their  friendship  as 
an  apology  for  this  delay,  since   so  many  other  letters 
required  attention,  from  whose  authors  he  could  not 
expect  such  leniency  ;  but  he  gives  as  another  reason, 
the  conviction  that  all  his  time,  when  well,  should  be 
devoted  to  finishing  his  books,  a  work  in  which  he 
does    not   like   to   be   interrupted.      His   regard   for 
Erhard  is  evident  from  this  statement,  "  Why  did  not 
fortune   so  order  it  that  the  man  whom,  of  all  who 
ever  visited  our  region,  I  would  like  most  for  daily 
companionship,  might  be  brought  into  more  intimate 
relationship  with  me  ?  " 

Erhard's  enthusiasm  for  Kant  began  with  the  read- 
ing  of  the  philosopher's  works ;  and  there  were  many 
similar  cases,  one  of  which  is  related  by  Erhard. 
Writing  from  Gottingen  to  Reinhold  in  1791,  he  says 
of  a  young  student  in  that  university  who  possessed 
extraordinary  mathematical  talents,  ''  He  heard  of 
Kant  in  1787,  and,  in  spite  of  the  warning  of  the 
bigots  of  the  Church  here,  he  began  to  read  his  books, 
and  became  in  the  strictest  sense  a  Kantian.  I  beheve 
that  he  would  die  for  Kant." 

In  Erhard's  correspondence  a  Miss  Maria  von 
Herbert  is  frequently  mentioned,  and  it  is  probable 
that  it  was  through  his  influence  that  she  became  one 
of  Kant's  correspondents.  Kant's  letter  to  her  is  lost, 
but  the  three  which  she  wrote  to  him  are  preserved. 


V 


408 


THE    LIFE    OF   IM MANUEL   KANT. 


I 


Tliey  reveal  a  morbid  disposition  and  sad  life,  and 
also  give  some  conception  of  the  age  and  of  Kant's 
influence.  Her  first  letter,  sent  in  the  spring  of  1792, 
through  Erhard,  who  was  a  friend  of  her  brother,  is  a 
wail  of  despair,  and  begins,  ^'  Great  Kant !  I  appeal  to 
thee,  as  a  believer  does  to  God,  for  help,  for  comfort, 
or  for  counsel  to  prepare  me  for  death.  The  evidences 
of  a  future  existence  were  made  sufl&ciently  clear  to 
me  in  thy  works ;  hence  I  take  refuge  to  thee  now." 
She  had  been  deeply  affected  by  his  books ;  but  while 
giving  her  the  hope  of  immortality,  they  did  not 
furnish  the  strength  she  needed  to  battle  successfully 
with  this  life.  Erhard  informed  Kant,  who  had 
become  interested  in  her  through  her  letter,  that  the 
rock  on  which  she  had  been  wrecked  was  "  romantic 
love."  "  In  order  to  realize  an  ideal  love,  she  committed 
herself  to  a  man  who  abused  her  confidence;  and 
again,  in  the  interest  of  this  same  ideal  love,  she  made 
a  confession  of  the  affair  to  her  second  lover."  She 
was  devotedly  attached  to  the  second  lover,  who  was 
a  man  of  superior  endowments ;  for  awhile  she  had 
kept  from  him  the  story  of  her  first  love  and  its  termi- 
nation, though  there  had  been  nothing  immoral  in  that 
relation.  Finally,  goaded  by  her  conscience,  she  re- 
vealed the  secret,  and  as  a  consequence  lost  his  affec- 
tion, but  received  the  promise  that  he  would  remain 
her  friend.  This  did  not  satisfy  her  ardent  nature, 
and  the  loss  of  his  love  brought  her  to  the  verge  of 
despair,  so  that  in  her  letter  to  Kant  she  says,  "  My 
heart  breaks  into  a  thousand  pieces.  I  should  have 
ended  my  life  before  this  if  I  had  not  read  so  much  of 
your  works ;  but  I  am  restrained  by  the  conclusion 
which  I  had  to  draw  from  your  theory,  namely,  that  I 


MARIA    VON    HERBERT. 


409 


ought  not  to  take  my  life  on  account  of  my  sorrows." 
The  powerful  influence  exerted  on  her  by  his  books 
prompted  her  to  make  this  earnest  appeal  to  Kant  to 
put  himself  in  her  place,  and  either  to  give  her  comfort 
or  else  to  doom  her.  "  Geben  Sie  mir  Trost  oder 
Verdammung."  Neither  his  moral  works  nor  his 
"Categorical  Imperative"  had  helped  her.  "My 
reason  forsakes  me  just  when  I  need  it  most.  I 
adjure  you  to  give  me  an  answer ;  if  you  do  not,  your 
conduct  will  not  be  in  harmony  with  your  proposed 
*  Categorical  Imperative.'  " 

It  would  be  exceedingly  interesting  to  learn  how 
the   cold   philosopher   met   a   case   like   this,  for  he 
answered  her  passionate  appeal  ;  and  her  second  one, 
dated  January,   1792,  is  in  reply  to  his  lost  letter. 
Her  second  letter  is  very  long,  and  makes  it  apparent 
that  the  deepest  gloom  had  immovably  settled  on  her 
soul.     Every  object  had  lost  its  charm,  so  that  study, 
activity,  and  life  itself,  had  become  almost  intolerable  ; 
ill-health  made  her  misery  the  greater,  and  her  sole 
desire  is  to   shorten  this  useless  existence,  in  which 
each  day  has  an  interest  for  her  ("  who  am  young 
yet  ")  only  because  it  brings  her  nearer  the  end.     She 
appeals   to  Kant  to  remove  the  "intolerable   empti- 
ness "  of  her  life  ;  and  if  she  improves  sufficiently  with 
his  help,   she   intends,   several   years    hence,  to  visit 
Konigsberg,  but  wants  him  to  promise  in  advance  that 
she  may  visit  him.     "  Then  you  must  tell  me  your 
history,  for  I  would  like  to  know  to  what  kind  of  a 
life  your  philosophy  has  led  you,  and  whether  it  was 
not  worth  your  while  to  take  a  wife,  or    to  devote 
yourself   with   your  whole   heart    to    some   one,  and 
w^hether  it  was  not  worth    your  while  to  propagate 


vj 


i 


I*-,;- 


^ 


410 


THE    LIFE   OF    IM MANUEL    KANT. 


your  likeness."    She  closes  witli  these  words  :  "  Would 
that  I  were  God,  and  could  reward  you  for  what  you 

have  done  for  us  !  " 

This  strange  letter  of  the  noble  lady,  with  its  f amihar 
tone  and  its  disposition  to  pry  into  the  secrets  of  his 
life,  and  especially  into  the  reasons  of  his  single  state, 
must  have  shocked  him.     She  was  young  and  ardent ; 
he  was  cold  and  nearly  seventy.      Of  course  he  did 
not  answer  this  wild  epistle.     Nevertheless  she  wrote 
again,  in    the    beginning  of    1794,   addressing    him: 
"  Highly  honoured  and  most  devotedly  loved  man!" 
She  thanks  him  for  his  book  oa  Religion,  and  says  that 
she  had  already  found  his  "  Kritik"  quite  satisfactory, 
but  that  it  did    not   render    unnecessary  the  works 
which  followed.     The  sentimental  tone  of  the  former 
letter  is  also  found  in  this  one,  and  she  says,  ''  Gladly 
would  I  command  the  course  of  nature  to  stand  still, 
if  I  could  only  be  assured  that  you  would  complete 
for  us  what  you  have  begun;    and   gladly  would  I 
attach  my  future  days  to  yours,  in  order  to  find  you 
in  this  world  at  the  end  of  the  French  Revolution." 
She  has  become  more  calm,  but  is  not  yet  reconciled 
to  life,  and  she  thinks  that  from  a  selfish  point  of  view 
a  longing  for  death  is  natural  to  every  pure  reason, 
and  that  only  in  view  of  morality  and  friendship  can 
one  who  has  the  strongest  desire  for  death  be  willing 
to  prolong  life.     It  was  still  her  purpose  to  visit  him 
with  the  friend  who  had  been  her  lover  ;  but  she  never 
saw  Kant.     With  this  letter  the  correspondence  ended, 
and  he  probably  never  heard  of  her  again. 

A  few  months  after  Kant's  death  she  committed 
suicide.  She  had  carefully  arranged  all  her  affairs, 
and  on  the  last  day  of  her^life  gave  a  dejeuner,  at  which 


FICHTE    IN    KONIGSBERG. 


411 


she  seemed  to  be  very  cheerful,  and  then  she  dis- 
appeared. Her  brother  had  defended  suicide  in  her 
presence,  with  the  thought  of  which  she  had  been 
familiar  for  many  years;  and  in  the  papers  left  by 
her  she  appeals  to  the  brother's  justification  of  her 
course.  The  editor  of  her  letters  says,  "  It  is  possible 
that  Kant's  life  kept  her  from  the  horrible  act  which 
she  threatens  in  all  three  of  her  letters."  (^^0 

A  peculiar  interest  attaches  to  Kant's  relation  to 
J.  G.  Fichte,  and  in  the  beginning  of  their  acquaintance 
there  is  a  touch  of  the  romantic.      Fichte  came  to 
Konigsberg  when  twenty-nine  years  old,  in  1791,  when 
many  others  were  attracted  thither  by  the  fame  of  the 
great  metaphysician.     With  all  the  zeal  of  his  ardent 
nature  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Kantian 
philosophy.     He  also  visited  Kant,  who,  however,  did 
not  receive  him  with  any  marked  attention  ;  and  he 
attended  some  of  his  lectures,  in  which  Fichte  was 
disappointed,  since  Kant  had  lost  much  of  his  former 
life  and  spirit,  and  delivered  them  in  a  drowsy  manner. 
But  for   Kant  himself  he  had   the  greatest   respect, 
and  he  resolved  to  enter  into  as  intimate  relation  with 
him  as  possible.     About  the  middle  of  July,  Fichte 
began  to  write  his  "  Critique  of  all  Revelation,"  which 
he  finished  in  a  httle  more  than  a  month.     On  the 
18th  of  August  he  sent  the  manuscript  to  Kant,  with 
a  letter,  in  which  he  says  :  "  I  came  to  K6nigsberg  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  man  whom  all  Europe 
honours,  but  whom  in  all  Europe  few  men  love  as  I 
do.     I  called  on  you.     Not  till  afterwards  did  it  occur 
to  me  that,  without  the  least  proof  that  I  was  worthy 
of  it,  it  was  presumption  to  claim  the  acquaintance  of 
such  a  man.     I  could  have  had  letters  of  recommenda- 


,* 


m 


I 


412 


THE  LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


CRITIQUE    OF   ALL   REVELATION. 


413 


' 


o 


lion.  I  desire  only  those  which  I  myself  write.  Here 
is  mine."  He  requested  Kant's  opinion  of  the  manu- 
script, and  again  called  on  him  on  the  23rd,  when  the 
philosopher  received  him  with  marked  cordiality.  He 
had  read  only  a  part  of  the  manuscript,  but  from  that 
he  formed  a  favourable  opinion  of  the  whole.  Kant 
entered  into  no  philosophical  conversation  with  him ; 
but  for  the  answer  to  his  questions  and  doubts  he 
referred  him  to  the  *'Kritik"  and  to  Court-preacher 
Schultz.  Fichte  at  once  visited  this  commentator  of 
the  "Kritik.''  A  few  days  later  he  dined  with  Kant, 
and  found  him  very  agreeable  and  entertaining. 

Fichte' s  letter  to  Kant  reveals  the  same  spirit  and 
independence  which  are  so  marked  in  his  patriotic 
"Addresses  to  the  German  Nation."  In  order  to 
understand  his  relation  to  Kant,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  he  was  imaginative  and  enthusiastic,  as  well 
as  self-reliant  and  heroic,  and  that  he  was  eloquent,  as 
well  as  philosophical.  His  letter  contains  this  passage  : 
"  Your  greatness,  excellent  man,  has,  with  all  ima- 
ginable grandeur,  this  peculiarity,  this  likeness  to 
Divinity:  that  one  can  approach  it  with  confidence." 
On  other  occasions  he  manifested  a  similar  enthusiasm 
for  the  revered  Kant,  whom  he,  at  that  time,  regarded 
as  the  ideal  philosopher.  Once  he  was  present  while 
the  guests  at  a  table,  in  a  hotel  in  Konigsberg,  were 
discussing  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  A  captain, 
who  was  especially  pronounced  in  his  doubts,  appealed 
to  Kant's  authority,  declaring  that  he  would  not  have 
claimed  mere  probability  for  the  doctrine  if  it  was 
settled  beyond  all  question.  Fichte  was  not  acquainted 
with  the  disputants,  but  he  listened  to  the  conversation 
with  deep  interest,  and  said  abruptly  to  the  captain. 


"  You  have  not  read  Kant."  He  then  took  part  in 
the  discussion,  claimed  that  Kant  had  given  invincible 
arguments  in  favour  of  immortality,  and  proceeded  to 
give  some  of  his  moral  proofs. 

Through  his  protracted  stay  in  Konigsberg,  Fichte 
became  involved  in  pecuniary  embarrassment,  and  in 
his  strait  he  appealed  to  Kant  to  lend  him  money  to 
enable  him  to  return  home.     The   aged  philosopher 
had  inspired  him  with  confidence,  and  he  wrote  him  a 
frank  statement  of  his  need,  and  made  a  modest  and 
most  touching  but,  at  the   same  time,  honourable  and 
even  noble  appeal  for  help.     The   letter   was  dated 
September    2nd,    and   Fichte's   journal    says  :    "  On 
September  3rd   I  was  invited  to   Kant's  house.     He 
received  me  with  his  usual  frankness,  informed  me, 
however,  that  he  had  not  yet  come  to  a  conclusion 
respecting  my  letter,  but  that  for  the  next  two  weeks 
he  could  do  nothing  for  me.     What  lovely  candour  !  " 
Three   days   later    he  was   there    again.     Kant   had, 
evidently,  become  interested  in  the  man  whose  manu- 
script revealed  extraordinary  ability,  and  he  thought 
that  by  means  of  this  production  the  author  might  be 
relieved  of  his  pecuniary  difficulties.     Fichte  had  re- 
quested him  to  alter  whatever  he  did  not  approve  ; 
but  Kant  erased  only  one  line,  the  dedication  to  him- 
self, which  read,  *'  To  the  Philosopher."     During  this 
visit  he  urged  the  author  to   sell  the  manuscript  to  a 
publisher,  and  thus  secure  the  needed  funds.     He  him- 
self dechned  to  lend  him  the  money,  but  he  made  an 
effort   to    secure  a  publisher.     That  same  afternoon, 
while  taking  a  walk,  Kant  met  Borowski,  and  his  first 
words  were,  "  You  must  help  me,  must  help  me  quickly 
to  get  a  name  and  bread  for  a  breadless  young  man. 


/ 


I  i 


m 


414 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEIi   KANT. 


Your  brother-in-law  (Hartung,  the  publisher)  must  be 
favourably  inclined  toward  him ;  use  your  i?^^'^^"^^  *;; 
get  him  to  publish  the  manuscript  which  I  will  send  you 
this  day  yet."  But  the  relief  was  not  secured  by  the 
sale  of  the  manuscript ;  Fichte  was,  however,  appointed 
tutor  in  the  family  of  the  Countess  of  Cracow,  to  whom 
Kant  had  recommended  him. 

Fichte's  essay-"  Critique  of  all  Revelation    -was 
published,  and  in  connexion  with  its  appearance  we 
have  a  striking  illustration  of  the  difficulty  and  un- 
certainty of   literary  criticism.     The   book    appeared 
anonymously,    and    with    surprising    unammity   the 
critics  and  reviewers  pronounced  it  a  work  ot  Kant. 
He  had  already  published  three  Critiques    and  his 
disciples  recognized  this  as  his  fourth.     In  us  enthu- 
siasm. Von  Baggesen  called  "  the  author  of  the  four 
Critiques"    "the   Messiah   of  Philosophers.        ibis 
general  verdict  respecting  the  authorship  was  the  more 
flattering  to  the  author  because  Kant's  fame  was  at  its 
zenith,  and  Fichte  was  unknown.     The  human  mmd 
is.  however,  subject  to  sudden  and  wonderful  trans- 
formations.     Kant  felt  it  obligatory  on  him  to  publish 
a  statement  that  he  was  not  the  author,  but  that  the 
book  was  the  production  of  a  young  candidate  for  the 
ministry      After  this  declaration,  those  who  examined 
the  book  of  course  saw  at  once,  from  its  style  and 
matter,  that  Kant  could  not  have  written  it.  and  they 
wondered  how  such  a  mistake  could  have  been  pos- 

sible !  ,      ■,  ^t 

After  Fichte   left    Kbnigsberg  he  became  one   ot 

Kant's  correspondents.     His  letters  from  Cracow  show 

that  his  warm  attachment  to  Kant  contmued   and  he 

professed  to  love  him  above  all  men.     From  Berlm  he 


FICHTE    IN    JEXA. 


415 


wrote  to  him :  "  In  yonder  world,  tlie  hope  of  which 
you  gave  to  so  many  who  had  none,  and  to  me  also, 
I  shall  surely  know  you,  not  by  your  physical  charac- 
teristics, but  by  your  mind."  He  speaks  of  him  as 
the  man  whom  he  honours  '' unspeakably ;"  and  from 
Ziirich  he  wrote  :  "  No,  great  man,  highly  important 
to  humanity  !  your  works  will  not  perish ;  they  will 
bear  fruit,  and  will  bring  about  a  new  intellectual 
flight  in  the  human  family  and  a  total  regeneration  of 

principles,  views,  and  constitutions What  must 

it  be,  great  and  good  man,  to  have  such  emotions  as 
yours  at  the  end  of  one's  earthly  career  !  I  acknow- 
ledge that  the  thought  of  you  shall  always  be  my 
genius  to  impel  me  not  to  leave  the  scene  of  activity 
without  having  blessed  humanity."  He  regards  Kant 
as  the  man  who  has  made  the  last  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  for  ever  memorable  with  respect 
to  the  progress  of  mankind. 

The  extraordinary  reputation  which  Fichte  suddenly 
gained  by  means  of  his  book  secured  for  him  a  call  to 
the  University  of  Jena.  He  was  thirty-one  years  old  at 
the  time,  just  the  age  at  which  Kant  became  a  tutor 
in  the  University  of  Konigsberg  ;  but,  while  the  latter 
toiled  for  fifteen  years  as  a  tutor,  Fichte  was  at  once 
made  professor  in  ordinary  of  philosophy.  Soon  after 
he  went  to  Jena  he  wrote  to  Kant,  giving  expression 
to  his  disgust  at  the  prevalent  tone  in  philosophy, 
lamenting  that  amid  the  philosophical  pretensions  it 
was  diflBcult  to  get  a  calm  hearing,  and  still  more 
difficult  to  secure  thorough  investigation  and  impartial 

criticism. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  follow  Fichte's  interesting 
career — the  charge  of  atheism  made  against  him  in 


J 


416 


THE   LIFE    OP   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


ALIENATION    BETWEEN   KANT   AND   FICIITE. 


417 


t 


xJ 


Jena,  and  his  fligM  to  Berlin  as  a  place  o£  refuge ; 
his  patriotic  addresses  in  this  city,  in  the  presence  of 
French  bayonets  ;  his  literary  activity ;  and  his  death, 
in  1814,  from  a  fever  contracted  while  waiting  on  the 
patients  in  a  hospital.  An  account  of  the  termination 
of  his  friendly  relation  to  Kant  must  not,  however,  be 

omitted.  .        •*  ^ 

When  Fichte  went  to  Jena,  that  university,  more 

than  KSnigsberg  even,  was  the  centre  for  the  advocacy 

and  the  spread  of  the  Critical  system.     But  he  soon 

developed  some  of  the  Kantian  principles  and  formed 

his  own  Idealistic  philosophy  as  found  m  his    ^  Wis- 

senschaftslehre."     To  Jacobi  he  wrote  m  1795  :      You 

are  well  known  as  a  realist,  and  I   suppose  that  I  am 

a  transcendental    idealist    more    strictly   than  Kant; 

for  he  still  admits  a  manifoldness  of  experience  but  i 

assert  in  plain  terms  that  even  this  is  produced  by  us, 

bv  means  of  a  creative  power." 

Fichte    claimed  that  he  had  given  the  system  of 
philosophy,    for  which  the   -Kritik"^  gave  only  the 
propaedeutics;    this    alienated    and    mcensed    Kant. 
Writin-  to  Tieftrunk,  in  1798,  Kant  speaks  of  the 
-  Wissenschaftslehre "     as   prolix,    and    says   that    it 
would  interfere  too  much  with  his  work  to  read  the 
book,  which  he  knew  only  through  a  review      Though 
this  review  was  exceedingly  favourable,  he  himself  did 
not  form  a  favourable  opinion  of  the  book,  and  was 
desirous  of  learning  Tieftrunk's  views  of  the   work, 
and  of  its  impressions  on  others  in  Halle. 

Although  Kant  depended  wholly  on  others  for  bis 
knowledge  of  Fichte' s  system,  he  nevertheless  con- 
eluded  that  he  ought  to  repudiate  all  sympathy  with 
its  peculiar  views.     Accordingly,  he  pubhshed  a  de- 


claration  in  1799,  that  he  regarded  the  ''Wissen- 
schaftslehre  "  as  a  system  which  is  wholly  unreli- 
able; and  that  the  assumption  of  Fichte  that  he, 
Kant,  wanted  to  write  only  the  propaedeutics  to 
transcendental  philosophy,  not  the  system  itself,  was 
inexplicable  to  him.  Such  an  intention,  he  says,  could 
never  have  entered  his  mind,  since  in  his  "  Kritik  "  he 
himself  praises  pure  philosophy  as  the  best  charac- 
teristic of  that  "  Kritik."  He  also  speaks  of  deceitful, 
so-called  friends,  who  meditate  our  destruction,  and 
quotes  an  Italian  proverb,  "  God  protect  us  against  our 
friends  ;  against  our  enemies  we  can  protect  ourselves." 
Speaking  of  the  Critical  Philosophy,  he  says  that,  owing 
to  its  ability  to  satisfy  the  reason  theoretically  as  well 
as  practically,  no  change  awaits  it  through  emenda- 
tions or  through  the  influence  of  another  system, 
however  much  opinions  may  change ;  but  that  the 
system  of  the  "  Kritik,"  resting  on  a  perfectly  secure 
basis,  is  for  ever  established,  and  is  indispensable  to  all 
future  ages  for  the  highest  purposes  of  humanity. 

Fichte  replied  in  the  same  journal  in  which  this  de- 
claration had  been  pubhshed,  in  the  form  of  a  letter 
addressed  to  Schelling.  He  appealed  to  the  fact  that 
Kant,  in  his  last  letter  to  himself,  had  stated  that,  on 
account  of  the  weakness  of  old  age,  he  now  gladly  left 
to  others  the  subtlety  of  theoretical  speculations,  and 
found  it  advisable  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  the  practi- 
cal. Fichte  therefore  claims  that  Kant's  own  letter  is  an 
evidence  of  his  inability  to  judge  of  the  speculations  of 
others,  and  thus  shows  what  his  pubhc  declaration 
respecting  his  (Fichte's)  system  is  worth,  and  adds  :  "  I 
did  not  regard  it  as  persiflage,  but  could  well  think 
it  seriously  meant,  that  Kant  in  his  old  age,  after  a 

E  e 


=1' 


I] 


\) 


418 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMAKCEL   KANT. 


PROFESSOR    KIESEWETTER. 


419 


toilsome  life,  should  regard  himself  ainable  to  enter 
speculations  altogether  new."  Instead  of  fol  owmg 
Kant  or  any  one  else,  he  says,  ^'  The  venerable  man 
eight  years  ago  gave  me  different  advice,  which  1  preter 
to  follow,— always  to  stand  on  my  own  feet." 

Kant's  declaration  was  certainly  unfortunate,  for  it 
was  understood  to  repudiate  a  system  which  he  knew 
only  through  the  representations  of  others.  Ihe 
statement  that  the  "  Kritik"  was  intended  to  give  the 
system  of  transcendental  philosophy,  and  not  merely 
the  propaedeutics  to  it,  is  equally  unfortunate,  since  it 
is  in  conflict  with  his  own  statements  m  the  ''  Prole- 
gomena," in  the  Preface  to  the  second  edition  of  the 
^'  Kritik,"  and  also  in  his  letters.  But  Kant's  mtel- 
lectual  condition  was  already  such  as  to  make  him  less 
responsible  for  his  utterances  than  formerly. 

Fichte,  like  Herder,  from  both  of  whom  Kant  had 
expected  so  much  as  disciples,  became  a  powerful 
agent  in  destroying  the  supremacy  of  the  Critical 
Philosophy.  Kant's  pubhshed  declaration  shows  how 
deeply  he  felt  grieved  at  Fichte's  effort  to  transcend 
his  system.  From  Borowski  we  learn  that  he  some- 
times spoke  bitterly  of  Fichte  ;  and  from  Hasse,  that 
he  so  disliked  Fichte  and  his  school,  that  his  guests 
did  not  dare  to  mention  them  in  his  presence. 

Among  Kant's  favourite  pupils  was  Professor  J.  G.  C. 
Kiesewetter.  He  went  to  Konigsberg  about  1788,  being 
sent  and  pecuniarily  aided  by  Frederick  William  II., 
for  the  purpose  of  thoroughly  studying  the  Kantian 
system.  After  completing  his  studies  at  Konigsberg 
he  lectured  on  that  philosophy  in  Berlin.  His  letters 
throw  considerable  light  on  Kant's  influence  in  that 
capital  during  the  last  decade  of  the  eighteenth  century ; 


and  his  acquaintance  with  men  in  high  positions  gave 
him  special  facilities  for  learning  the  relation  of  the 
Government  to  Kant. 

Kiesewetter  is  another  illustration  of  the  remarkable 
fascination  exercised  by  Kant  on  the  minds  of  some  of 
his  pupils.  He  writes  to  his  teacher  as  the  man  who 
"  has  my  whole  heart,  and  whom  I  love  above  all  others. 
Never  without  the  deepest  emotion  do  I  think  of  the 
happiness  I  enjoyed  in  my  intercourse  with  you,  and 
very  often  I  recall  the  past.  Would  that  I  could  once 
tell  you  wholly  my  feelings  toward  you,  and  how  much 
I  appreciate  that  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  you  !  .  .  .  I 
shall  never  forget  what  I  owe  you;  I  shall  always 
honour  you  as  my  second  father.  I  heartily  beseech 
you  not  to  deny  me  your  friendship  in  the  future,  and 
to  grant  me  the  privilege  ofoccasionally  writing  to  you, 
thus  to  recall  the  oral  communications  I  had  with  you, 
which  formerly  made  me  so  happy." 

This  correspondent  lived  with  the  cabinet  minister 
Count  von  Schulenberg,  was  the  tutor  of  the  princes 
Henry  and  William,  and  was  well  acquainted  in  official 
circles.  To  the  Chancellor  von  Hoffmann,  who  was 
a  warm  admirer  of  the  philosopher,  he  was  required  to 
speak  for  a  whole  hour  about  Kant.  Von  Zedlitz  and 
other  men  in  high  places,  Woellner  included,  spoke  in 
high  terms  of  Kant  and  his  philosophy.  Kiesewetter 
used  his  position  to  cultivate  enthusiasm  for  his  beloved 
teacher.  He  was  indebted  to  the  Baroness  von 
Bielefeld  for  his  appointment  as  tutor  to  the  princes ; 
and  she  was  also  his  pupil,  for  he  lectured  to  her  on 
anthropology  and  taught  her  Kantian  philosophy.  To 
Kant  he  wrote,  "  What  will  you  say  when  I  tell  you 
that  a  beautiful  young  lady,  for  that  the  Baroness  von 

E  e  2 


y 


n 


' 


i 


'lit 


\ 


*^ 


420  THE   LIFE    OF   IMMAKUEL   KANT. 

Bielefeld  is.  ventures  to  enter  the  mysteries  of  your 
system,  and  that  she  has  had  explamed  to  her,  and 
actua";  comprehends,  the  difference  between  analytic 
and  synthetic  judgments,  between  knowledge  a  pnon 
and  Iposterioii,  and  your  theory  of  space  and  time  ? 
Still  more  will  you  be  surprised  when  I  mform  you 
tha   she  does  nof  study  philosophy  for  the  purpose  o 
Lking  a  show  of  her  attainments,  for  she  is  modest 
Wond  all  description,  and  one  does  not  shine  at  our 
court  by  means  of  philosophy ;  and  it  will  surprise  you 

riearn  that  she  neglect^r  «f^^^*^"'"^  °" '"'""' 
of  the  study  of  pliilosophy." 

In  these  letters  of  Kiesewetter  to  Kant  there  is  a 
strancre  mixture  of  Kantian  philosophy    extravagant 
expressions  of  friendship,  information  about  personal 
mltievs    and  government  officials     court-gossip,  and 
Teltow  turnips.     These  small  -d   superior  turmps 
^hich  grew  near  Berlin,  were  greatly  prized  by  Kant, 
and  his  friend   was  careful  to  forward  them   to  him 
regularly.     Once  he  sent  instructions  from  his  mother 
through    Kant,  to  the  cook  on   the   best  method  of 
preparing  this  dehcacy.     The  philosopher  at  one  time 
reminded  him  of  the  turnips,  and  in  response  he  wrote, 
"  Do  not  think  that  without  your  letter  I  should  have 
forgotten  you.     The  turnips  had  already  been  ordered, 
and  I  make  it  a  law  unto  myself  to  provide    or  you 
this  domestic  necessity  every  year."     He  wants  Kant 
to  inform  him  whether  they  are  to  his  taste.     Indeed, 
Kant^s  interests  included  much  beside  abstract  philo- 
sophy,  and  the  puWisher  of  these  letters,  says.     It  is 
evident  that  these  Teltow  turnips,  and  the  literary  and 
political  news,  which  play  so  prominent  a  part  m  these 
fifteen  letters,  were  as  highly  prized  by  Kant  as  the 


JUNG   STILLING. 


421 


fact  that  Kiesewetter  remained  true  to  the  Critical 

Philosophy." 

It  is  not  strange  that  philosophical  minds  should 
have  been  greatly  attracted  and   stimulated   by   the 
"  Kritik ;"  but  it  is  surprising  that  this  book,  which 
was  intended  to  check  religious  enthusiasm,  should  have 
won  the  admiration  of  a  man  like  Dr.  H.  Jung,  com- 
monly called  Jung  Stilling.     He  wrote  to  Kant  that 
the  explanation  of  the  ''  Kritik  "  by  Schultz  had  given 
him  such  calmness  as  he  had  never  before  experienced. 
He  had  also  read  the  "  Kritik  "  itself,  and  the  ''  Critique 
of  the  Practical  Reason,"  and   everywhere  he  found 
apodictic    truth.     In   his    enthusiasm,    he   exclaims, 
"  God  bless  you !  you  are  a  great,  a  very  great  instru- 
ment  in  the  hand  of  God.     I  do  not  flatter.     Your 
philosophy  will  effect  a  far  greater,  a  more  general,  and 
a  more  blessed  revolution  than  Luther's  Reformation ; 
for  as  soon  as  a  man  has  well  apprehended  the  *  Kritik 
of  Reason '  he  sees  that  no  refutation  is  possible.    Your 
philosophy   must,  consequently,  be   eternal    and  un- 
changeable, and  its  beneficial  influences  will  lead  the 
religion  of  Jesus,   so  far  as  it  aims  only  at  hohness, 
back   to   its   original   purity.     All   the    sciences   will 
become  more  systematic,  more  pure,  and  more  certain ; 
and  legislation,  in  particular,  will  gain  extraordinarily." 
He  desires  Kant's  views  on  legislation,  and  closes  as 
follows  :  ''  How  peacefully,  how  full  of  blessed  expec- 
tation you  can  approach  the  evening  of  your  life  !  May 
God  make  it  cheerful  and  full  of  anticipations  of  a 
joyful   future !     Farewell,  great,   noble   man !     Your 
true  admirer.  Dr.  Jung." 

Kant  had  made  preparations  to  answer  this  letter, 
and  a  paper  was  found  in  his  handwriting  which  treats 


1^ 


422 


TUE    LIFE    OF    IMMANOEL    KANT. 


of  the  principles  of  legislation.  Among  other  things, 
Kant  wrote,  "  The  universal  problem  of  civil  associa- 
tion is,  to  unite  freedom  with  a  constraint  which 
harmonizes  with  universal  freedom  and  promotes  its 
preservation/* 


,  t 


428 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


OLD    AGE    AND    DEATH. 

Sad  life— Early  symptoms  of  old  age— Interference  with  literary 
projects— Close  of  his  lectures  and  literary  labours— Relation 
to  the  Academic  Senate— Wasianski  assuming  control  of  his 
affairs— Loss  of  memory— Visitors— Undeviating  uniformity- 
Change  of  servants-Method  of  retiring— Exercise-Approach 
of  spring— Sleeplessness— Last  birthday— Failing  sight— His 
sister— Strange  notion  of  the  atmosphere— First  sickness- 
Efforts  to  rob  him— Loss  of  conversational  power-Longing  for 
death— Extreme  feebleness— Death— Funeral— Mementoes- 
Will— Kant  Society— Monument. 

During  the  evening  of  Kant's  life  the  shadows  gathered 
rapidly  and  enveloped  him  in  deep  gloom.  The  broad 
scholar,  the  profound  metaphysician,  the  genial, 
humorous,  and  brilliant  companion,  and  the  man  with 
an  iron  will,  lost  the  power  of  consecutive  thought 
and  became  helpless  as  a  child.  His  life,  as  a  whole, 
was  a  sad  one,  in  spite  of  his  intellectual  pleasures 
and  his  great  fame.  The  poverty,  obscurity,  and 
sensitiveness  of  his  youth  ;  the  self-denial  and  struggles 
of  his  early  manhood ;  his  mental  conflicts ;  the  pain 
caused  by  the  bitter  attacks  on  his  philosophy ;  the 
opposition  to  his  reUgious  views,  especially  that  of  the 
Government ;  the  defection  of  pupils  and  disciples  from 
his  system  ;  the  absence  of  all  the  cheering  influences 
of  family  ties ;  his  real  isolation  and  solitude,  in  spite 


M 


424 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMA.NUEL   KANT. 


of  the  host  of  admiring  friends,  are  the  dark  outlines 
of  the  picture   of   his  hfe.      Of  inspiring  faith    and 
enthusiastic   hope   there  is  scarcely  a  trace,  and,  m 
reality,  his  religion  was  as  emotionless  practically  as 
it  was  in  theory.     His  position,  his  mode  of  life,  and 
his  habits,  deprived  him,  in  a  marked  degree,  of  the 
ordinary  enjoyments,  the  pleasures  of  company  alone 
excepted ;    but  he  was  generally  calm  and  even  stoical, 
and  cherished  the  heroic  virtues  too  much  to  moan  over 
his  lot.     On  the  other  hand,  his  rare  intellectual  joys 
and  his  delight  in  moral  contemplations  relieved  the 
dark  outlines ;  and  the  soHtude  of  his  bachelor  home 
was  cheered  by  the  presence  of  his  chosen  and  de- 
lighted guests.     But  he  could  not  always  live  on  the 
subhme  heights  of  his  speculation,  or  on  the  snow- 
peaks  of  his  morality ;  and  his  social  pleasures  were 
not  his  life,  but  only  episodes.     Life  to  him  was  toil, 
and  his  recreations  were  only  the  means  for  exercising 
the  elements  in  his  nature  not  already  exhausted  by 
toil,  and  of  fitting  him  for  new  exertion.     However 
unsatisfactory  to  exalted  minds  the  ordinary  routine  of 
life  may  be,  he  who  leaves  the  beaten  track  will  find 
his  journey  rough  and  difficult,  and  will  experience 
that  an  unusual  course  has  unusual  pains,  though  it 
may  also  have  exquisite  pleasures.     Looking  at  Kant's 
life  as  a  whole,  we  are  prepared  to  hear  one  of  his 
friends  and  biographers  say,  "  Who  has  not  read  in 
his  writings,  and  which  of  his  friends  has  not  heard 
him  say  frequently,  that  he  would  not  be  willing,  for  any 
price,  to  live  his  life  over  again  on  condition  of  living 
from  the  beginning  just  as  he  had  done  ?  "     His  life, 
especially  the  later  years,  had  so  little  attraction,  that 
he  admitted  that  if  the  choice  were  given  to  him  be- 


SAD   LIFE. 


425 


tweenalife  after  death  similar  to  this  and  annihilation, 
he  would  not  hesitate  to  choose  the  latter. 

In  old  age   the  sadness   deepened,    while   his   few 
joys  diminished  and  then  vanished  altogether.     The 
former  exhilaration    of  his   mental    powers    and   the 
buoyancy  of  his  spirit  were  gone  ;  his  faculties  became 
so  weak  that  he  could  not  continue  his  usual  occupations, 
and  he  lost  all  interest  in  passing  events.     By  means 
of  careful  attention  to  his  body,  by  extreme  regularity 
and  simplicity,   and  through  the   great  power  of  his 
will  over  his  physical  state,  he  had  succeeded  in  pre- 
serving his  weak  constitution  in  a  tolerable  degree  of 
health  till  old  age ;  and  by  successfully  practising  the 
art  of  prolonging  life,  he  had  extended  his  beyond  the 
period  of  its  enjoyment;  and  at  last  the  resolute  will 
lost  its  power  and  the  mind  its  grasp,  he  sank  into 
utter  helplessness,  and  existence  itself  became  a  burden. 
The  relaxing  of  Kant's  intellectual  powers  began 
comparatively  early,  and  there  were  marked  traces  of 
the  effects  of  old  age  when  he  was  only  sixty-five.     In 
1789  he  wrote  to  Reinhold  that  age  with  it  weakness 
was  making  itself  sensibly  felt ;  and  two  years  later  he 
wrote  to  him  again,  "  About  two  years  ago  my  health 
underwent  a  sudden  revolution  without  any  apparent 
cause,  and,  excepting  a  cold  of  three  weeks,  without 
any  real  sickness."     He   states  that  his  appetite  has 
suffered,  and  though  he  has  neither  physical  weakness 
nor  pain,    yet  his   disposition    for  mental   labour   is 
changed,  and  even  the  reading  of  his  lectures  is  thereby 
affected.     He  could  now  perform  mental  work  only  two 
or  three  hours  in  the  forenoon,  then  he  became  sleepy, 
no  matter  how  well  he  had  slept  the  previous  night ; 
after  these  few  hours  of  continuous  labour  he  could 


V 


426 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


work  only  at  intervals.  This  state  was  beyond  the 
control  of  his  will,  and  in  order  to  accomplish  his 
labours  he  was  obliged  to  wait  for  favourable  moods. 
"  It  is,  I  think,  nothing  but  old  age,  which  obliges  the 
one  sooner  and  another  later  to  cease  work,  but 
which  to  me  is  the  more  unwelcome  because  I  believed 
that  I  was  about  to  see  the  accomplishment  of  my 
plan." 

The  early  appearance  of  the  symptoms  of  old  age 
was,  no  doubt,  partly  caused  by  his  frail  physical  con- 
dition, and  by  his  excessive  mental  labours,  he  himself 
being  suspicious  that  it  was  in  part  attributable  to  his 
philosophical  speculations.  He  thought  it  not  strange 
that  the  metaphysician,  who  has  to  strain  his  attention 
in  order  to  keep  it  fixed  on  the  thoughts  under  con- 
sideration, should  become  an  invalid  sooner  than 
others.  During  the  preparation  of  the  "  Kritik ''  he 
suffered  much  from  indisposition,  and  it  is  probable 
that  this  work  largely  contributed  to  the  early  ex- 
haustion of  his  powers,  a  result  not  at  all  surprising 
when  the  long,  continuous,  and  exceedingly  laborious 
effort  necessary  for  the  completion  of  that  work  is 
considered.  (^'^)  His  intense  mental  application  seems 
to  have  worn  his  brain  till  the  power  of  recuperation 
was  gone. 

His  powers  began  to  fail  when  he  still  had  numerous 
literary  projects,  and  the  desire  to  use  every  available 
moment  to  finish  them  led  him  to  defer  less  pressing 
matters,  such  as  the  claims  of  friendship  and  the 
writing  of  letters.  In  1 794  he  wrote  that  though  subject 
to  indisposition,  he  regarded  himself  as  pretty  well  for 
a  man  of  seventy,  but  that  he  had  inexplicable  difficulty 
in  entering  into  the  thoughts  of  others  and  forming  a 


SYMPTOMS    OF   OLD   AGE. 


427 


definite  and  critical  view  of  their  systems .  A  year  later, 
in  speaking  of  the  development  of  the  Critical  Philo- 
sophy, he  says,  "My  age  and  the  physical  incon- 
veniences connected  therewith  make  it  necessary  for 
me  to  leave  to  my  friends  all  further  development  of 
this  science,  and  to  use  my  little  remaining  strength 
for  the  appendices  of  the  same,  which  are  still  in  my 
plan,  though  I  can  work  at  them  but  slowly." 

Kant  had  on  hand  materials  for  numerous  literary 
works,  and  he  was  anxious  to  prepare  them  for  publi- 
cation ;  but  he  found  that  the  debility  of  old  age  in- 
terfered seriously  with  his  projects,  though  he  made 
everything  else  subservient  to  them.     When  he  was 
seventy-four,    it  was  his  turn   to  be  rector ;  but   his 
weakness  and  the  desire  to  devote  all  his  time  to  his 
literary  labours  induced  him  to  decline  the  position. 
Not  only  his   letters,  but  also  the  important  books 
which  he  published  at  this  time,  show  that  he  must 
have  worked  very  hard,  in  spite  of  his  difficulties.     His 
*' Metaphysics  of  Morals,"    in  two  parts,  embracing 
the  metaphysical  principles  of  law  and  those  of  virtue, 
appeared  in  1797.      During  the  winter   of    1796-97 
he  laboured    constantly  in  preparing  works  for   the 
press,   and  as   a   consequence  of  overwork  his  mind 
and  body   suffered  gi^eatly,    and  in   various  parts   of 
Germany  it   was  reported    that  he  was  dead.     After 
this  his   debility   was  more   marked.     For  a  number 
of  years  before  this  time  his  lectures  had  lost  much  of 
their  former  life,  and  for  a  year  or  two  he  had  de- 
livered only  public  ones ;  these  he  also  closed  in  the 
summer   of  1797.      The   commencement    of   his  last 
course,  in  the  spring  of  that  year,   was  delayed  on 
account  of  his  feebleness ;  and  when  he  was  ready  to 


428 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


begin  it,  the  occasion  was  treated  as  an  academic 
festival :  the  students  formed  a  procession  and  marched 
to  his  house,  in  order  to  manifest  their  joy  that  he 
who  for  forty-two  years  had  been  the  pride  of  the 
university  was  once  more  able  to  resume  his  lectures. 

The  last  book  written  by  him  was  published  in  1798, 
on  the  "  Conflict  of  the  Different  Faculties  in  a  Univer- 
sity ; "  in  the  same  year  his  "  Anthropology,"  consisting 
of  his  lectures  on  that  subject,  appeared ;  afterwards  he 
himself  published  nothing  except  a  few  short  prefaces  to 
the  books  of  others.  His  "Logic  "  appeared  in  1800;  his 
*' Physical  Geography,"  in  1802  ;  and  his  "  Pedagogics," 
in  1804, — all  edited  by  friends,  at  his  request. 

After  closing  his  lectures  he  had  no  oflScial  duties 
in  connexion  with  the  university  except  as  member  of 
the  senate,  which  was  composed  of  the  ten  oldest 
professors.  On  account  of  their  age  and  feebleness,  he 
and  another  member  no  longer  attended  the  meetings, 
and  it  was  proposed  to  appoint  two  other  professors 
as  substitutes,  so  as  to  secure  a  full  attendance.  Kant 
regarded  this  as  an  infringement  on  his  rights,  and  in 
July,  1798,  he  wrote  an  emphatic  protest,  claiming 
that,  when  necessary,  the  votes  of  the  absent  members 
could  be  obtained,  as  had  been  the  custom,  by  sending 
to  their  homes.  This  last  document  of  Kant  in  re- 
ference to  his  relation  to  the  university  indicates  his 
spirit  and  determination  to  maintain  his  rights.  Finally 
the  matter  had  to  be  appealed  to  the  Government, 
which,  in  the  name  of  the  king,  decided  in  his  favour. 

In  business  affairs  Kant  lacked  that  independence 
which  was  so  striking  a  characteristic  in  his  intellectual 
pursuits.  During  the  life  of  Green,  that  gentleman 
attended  to  the  loaning  of  his  money ;  Lampe  and  the 


WASIANSKI. 


429 


cook  attended  to   his   household,  though   he  himself 
kept  a  close  supervision  over  his  domestic  affairs ;  and 
he"  had  friends  enough  to  aid  him  whenever  necessary. 
In"  extreme  old  age  he  found  the  management  of  his 
affairs  burdensome,  and  therefore  gave  it  into  the  hands 
of  his  friend,  the  Rev.  E.  A.  C.  Wasianski.     He  had 
been  one  of  Kant's  students,   became  his  amanuensis 
in  1774,  and  afterwards  officiated  as  pastor  in  Konigs- 
berg.     For  ten  years  he  had  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  revered  professor,  when  they  met  again  in  1790, 
at  a  wedding,  and  after  that  time  he  was  frequently 
Kant's  guest.     He  was  a  good  scholar  and,  which  was 
of  special  importance  in  his  later  relation  to  his  teacher, 
he    possessed    unusual    mechanical    skill.     Although 
Kant  had  no  predilection  for  preachers,  Wasianski  had 
his  entire  confidence,  and  he  felt  greatly  relieved  when 
this    friend    undertook    the    direction   of  his   affairs. 
One  day  Kant  said  to  an  acquaintance,  "  You  cannot 
imagine  how  agreeable  it  is  to  have  a  friend  to  whom 
one  can  commit  all  his  domestic  affairs  with  the  con- 
viction that  he  will  attend  to  them  as  if  they  were  his 
own."     Wasianski  proved  himself  worthy  of  this  con- 
fidence; he  visited   Kant   daily,   and    sometimes   re- 
peatedly  on  the  same  day,  was  very  judicious  and  kind, 
but  firm,  took  great  pains  to  make  his  noble  charge  as 
comfortable  as  possible,  and,  in  spite  of  the  difficulty 
of  his  position,  he  succeeded  in  managing  everything 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  philosopher  and  his  friends. 
He  wrote  a  valuable  account  of  Kant's  old  age,  telling 
his  story  in    a  simple  but   affectionate  manner,  and 
giving  many   interesting   details   of  his   decline  and 
death ;    and  it  is  mainly  to  him  that  we  are  indebted 
for  whatever  is  known  of  Kant's  last  years. 


430 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


:>r 


Being  accustomed  to  observe  his  condition  very 
carefully,  Kant  was  painfully  conscious  of  his  increas- 
ing physical  and  mental  weakness.  In  1799  and  after- 
wards, he  repeatedly  said  to  his  guests,  "  Gentlemen, 
I  am  old  and  feeble ;  you  must  regard  me  as  a  child.'* 
Feeling  the  need  of  more  sleep  than  formerly,  he  con- 
tinued still  to  rise  at  five,  but  retired  earlier,  at  first 
a  few  minutes,  then  at  nine,  afterwards  at  five  o'clock. 
His  walks  were  gradually  shortened,  and  he  became  so 
feeble  that  one  day  he  fell  and  was  unable  to  rise  till 
aided  by  two  ladies  who  hastened  to  his  assistance  ; 
after  this  experience  he  abandoned  his  out-door  exer- 
cise. So  weak  did  he  become,  that  he  sometimes  sank 
to  the  floor  while  attempting  to  walk  or  stand  in  his 
room.  Occasionally  he  fell  asleep  in  his  chair,  and 
once  his  head  fell  forward  and  his  cotton  nightcap 
caught  fire  from  the  lamp  on  the  table ;  but  on  awaking 
he  had  the  presence  of  mind  to  take  it  off,  throw  it  on 
the  floor,  and  stamp  out  the  fire. 

When  he  was  seventy-eight,  the  great  weakness  of 
his  memory  was  one  of  the  most  striking  evidences  of 
increasing  mental  debiHty.  Events  of  recent  occur- 
rence were  now  forgotten,  while  those  of  former  years 
were  still  well  remembered ;  and  he  would  frequently 
repeat  himself,  relating  the  same  things  a  number  of 
times  in  a  day.  While  heretofore  he  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  using  the  blank  parts  of  letters  and  envelopes, 
and  other  small  pieces  of  paper,  for  learned  notes,  he 
now  used  them  for  memoranda  of  the  most  ordinary 
affairs,  in  order  to  avoid  repetitions,  and  to  promote 
variety  in  his  conversation.  These  papers  accumu- 
lated so  rapidly  that  it  became  difficult  to  find  what 
he  wanted ;    Wasianski    therefore    made  little  blank 


j 


WEAKNESS    OF    MEMORY. 


431 


books  for  this  purpose.  In  one  of  these,  each  of  which 
lasted  about  a  month,  he  wrote  five  times,  "  The  name 
of  my  barber  is  Rogall."  He  also  made  memoranda 
of  the  news  of  the  day,  the  names  of  persons  whom  he 
desired  as  his  guests,  the  dishes  to  be  prepared,  also 
whatever  particularly  interested  him  in  the  conversa- 
tion of  friends,  hints  on  natural  science,  accounts  of 
travel,  politics,  and  similar  things.  The  repetitions 
show  how  soon  he  forgot  what  he  had  written,  and 
many  trivial  things  were  noted.  Once  he  wrote, 
*'June,  July,  and  August  are  the  three  summer 
months."  Strange  that,  while  these  notes  were  in- 
tended to  help  his  memory,  he  once  wrote  the  very 
thing  he  wanted  to  forget,  probably  to  remind  him  that 
it  was  to  be  forgotten  ;  thus,  after  dismissing  his  old 
servant,  he  made  this  memorandum,  "  The  name  of 
Lampe  must  now  be  entirely  forgotten.''  But  notes  of 
an  intellectual  character  are  also  found  in  these  Httle 
books,  indicating  that  the  powers  of  his  mind  were  not 

wholly  extinct.  (^'^^) 

After  he  became  famous,  Kant  received  numerous 
calls  from  strangers  who  visited  Konigsberg.  Being 
regarded  as  one  of  the  sights  of  the  city,  many  who 
had  no  interest  in  science  called  on  him  from  mere 
curiosity.  Such  visits  had  always  been  disagreeable, 
and  in  old  age  they  became  a  great  annoyance.  He 
felt  that  he  could  no  longer  interest  visitors  with  his 
conversation,  and  he  did  not  like  to  have  them  witness 
his  infirmity;  therefore  those  who  requested  to  see 
him  were  generally  refused,  but  some  were  so  persistent 
and  brought  such  influence  to  bear  that  be  could  not 
well  deny  their  request.  Persons  admitted  into  his 
presence  were  asked  to  make  their  visit  very  short. 


432 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


CHANGE   OF   SERVANTS. 


433 


He  would  generally  receive  them    standing,  leaning 
against  his  table,  in  a  surly  mood ;  and  to  the  compli- 
ments paid  him  he  would  answer,  "  What  do  you  see 
in  me,  an  old,  emaciated,  frail,  weak  man  ?  "     Among 
those  who  were  determined  to  see  him  was  a  young 
Russian  physician  who,  when  admitted  into  Kant's 
presence,  seized  his  hands  and  kissed  them,  to  the 
great  embarrassment  of  the  philosopher,  who  was  no 
friend  of  such  demonstrations.     The  Russian  after- 
wards sent  his  servant  to  inquire  about  Kant's  health, 
and  also  whether  he  was  pecuniarily  provided  for  in 
his  old  age  ;  and  he  begged  for  a  scrap  of  paper  with 
some  of  his  writing,  as  a  memento.     Such  a  piece  of 
paper  was  found  and  sent ;  when  delivered  to  him,  he 
seized  it  with  joy  and  kissed  it,  and  in  his  enthusiasm 
he  pulled  off  his  coat  and  vest  and  gave  them  to  the 
bearer.     When  Kant  heard  of  the  matter  he  thought 
it  strange  conduct ;  nevertheless  he  felt  a  degree  of 
pleasure  in  the  fact  that  he  was  held  in  such  reve- 
rence. 

The  extreme  regularity  to  which  he  had  accustomed 
himself  became  more  excessive  and  unyielding  in  his 
old  age,  when  the  rules  which  he  had  so  long  and  so 
faithfully  observed  had  become  so  much  a  part  of  him- 
self that  even  the  slightest  necessary  deviation  became 
diflScult  and  painful.      He  wanted  things  done  "at 
once,"   as  he  was  accustomed  to  say,  and  the  least 
delay  seemed  a  long  time  and  greatly  annoyed  him. 
He  was  induced  now  to  take  coffee  after  dinner,  and  if 
it  was  not  ready  at  the  desired  moment  he  became  very 
impatient.     When  told,  "  It  will  be  brought   imme- 
diately," he  would  answer,  "  Yes,  will  be;  there's  the 
rub,  that  it  is  yet  to   be  brought."     Sometimes  he 


would  exclaim,  "  Well,  I  can  die  waiting,  and  in  the 
next  world  I  shall  drink  no  coffee ;"  or  he  would  go 
to  the  door  and  call,  "  Coffee,  coffee  !  "  At  last,  when 
he  heard  the  servant  coming  with  it,  he  would  say 
exultingly,  in  sailor  s  language,  "  I  see  land."  He 
had  accustomed  himself  to  such  an  undeviating 
uniformity  that  "  if  the  shears  or  his  penknife  lay  a  few 
inches  out  of  their  usual  place,  or  if  their  accustomed 
position  was  changed,  it  would  disturb  him  ;  and  a 
disarrangement  of  larger  objects,  such  as  a  chair,  or 
an  increase  or  decrease  of  their  number,  troubled  him 
greatly,  and  would  attract  his  eye  until  the  old  order 
of  things  was  entirely  restored." 

Wasianski  found  his  position  peculiarly  trying  on 
this  account,  especially  as  it  became  necessary  to  intro- 
duce material  changes  for  the  invalid's  comfort  and 
safety.  Kant  was  desirous  of  submitting  wholly  to  the 
judgment  of  his  friend,  and  to  be  led  as  a  child,  and 
once  he  said  to  him,  "  Dearest  friend,  if  you  think 
a  matter  advantageous  to  me,  and  I  do  not ;  if  I 
regard  it  as  useless  and  disadvantageous,  nevertheless 
if  you  advise  it,  I  will  approve  and  accept  it."  Audit 
was  with  this  distinct  understanding  that  Wasianski 
consented  to  take  charge  of  him  and  his  affairs.  But 
it  was  one  thing  to  resolve  and  promise,  and  another 
to  execute  ;  and  he  was  so  set  in  his  ways  that  he  found 
it  exceedingly  difficult  to  be  faithful  to  his  promise, 
and  sometimes  his  friend  had  to  insist  peremptorily 
that  the  measures  which  he  regarded  as  necessary 
should  be  adopted. 

One  of  the  most  serious  changes  in  the  home  of  the 
philosopher  occurred  in  February,  1803.  Lampe,  who 
understood   perfectly  his  master's   peculiarities,    and 

F  f 


43i 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


ROUTINE   IN   EETIRING. 


435 


^ 


J 


knew  bow  to  adapt  himself  to  them,  had  become  so 
intemperate  and  rude  that  he  was  no  longer  fit  to  wait 
on  Kant,  who  was  then  most  in  need  of  his  services. 
A  memorandum  of  the  philosopher,  written  about  this 
time,  reads,  "  Mr.  Jensch,  criminal  counsellor,  is  to  be 
asked  how  my  drunken  servant  can  be  discharged." 
After  he  was  dismissed,  Kant  found  it  very  trying  to 
adapt  himself  to  the   presence  of   the  new  servant, 
although  he  was  far  superior  to  Lampe.     On  the  first 
morning  after  Lampe' s  discharge,  Wasianski  thought 
it  advisable  to  be  present  when  Kant  arose,  so  as  to 
make  everything    comfortable  for   him.     The   philo- 
sopher was  excessively  worried,  for  he  missed  his  old 
servant,  and  was  confused  by  the  presence  of  the  new 
one.     No  other  person  but  Lampe  had  prepared  his 
table  for  him,  or  knew  just  how  it  should  be  arranged  ; 
at  last  Kant  himself  placed  everything  as  he  wanted 
it,  when  his  friend  proposed  to  join  him  in  taking  a  cup 
of  tea  and  smoking  a  pipe  of  tobacco.     To  this  he 
assented  ;    but  it  w^as  evident  that  something  still  an- 
noyed him.     Finally,  Kant  requested  his  friend  to  seat 
himself  where  he  could  not  be  seen,  since  for  more  than 
half  a  century  no  one  had  ever  been  present  with  him 
when  taking  his  tea.     Wasianski  complied  with  his  re- 
quest, the  new  servant  withdrew,  and  then  all  was  right. 
Kant  retained  his  delicacy  of  feeling  to  the  last. 
He  had  been  in  the  habit  of  calling  his  servant  by  his 
family  name.     That  of  the  new  one  was  Kauffmann, 
the  German  for  "  Merchant ;"  but  as  he  invited  two 
merchants  to  dinner  every  week,  he  thought  it  might 
not  be  agreeable  to  them  if  he  designated  the  servant 
by  his  surname  in  their  presence,  so  he  called  him  by 
his  baptismal  name,  John.('^') 


\ 


At  first,  after  dismissing  Lampe,  he  liked  to  have  his 
guests  remain  with  him  while  he  retired,  which  he  did 
now  immediately  after  dinner.  It  was  thought  that 
Lampe  had  made  an  assault  on  him  while  retiring;  that 
this  had  made  him  fearful,  and  that  he  desired  the  pre- 
sence of  his  friends  to  give  him  the  feeling  of  safety. 
Even  trifles  in  his  conduct  were  regarded  as  significant 
and  worthy  of  remark,  since  they  indicated  charac- 
teristics of  the  man  whose  fame  filled  Germany. 
Numerous  details  are  given  of  this  period  which  must 
be  omitted ;  there  is,  however,  an  account  of  his 
method  of  retiring  of  which  some  things  are  so  charac- 
teristic as  to  be  worthy  of  mention.  When  he  divested 
himself  of  his  clothing,  it  was  done  strictly  according 
to  rule,  and  he  would  permit  no  one  to  do  for  him 
what  he  could  do  himself.  After  taking  off  his  wig, 
whose  bag  generally  hung  forward  and  almost  on  his 
breast,  and  which  he  was  continually  throwing  back,  he 
would  draw  his  coat  to  the  elbows,  and  unbutton  his 
vest,  and  his  servant  would  pull  them  off.  There  was 
a  certain  routine  which  was  not  allowed  to  be  varied, 
and  every  article  of  clothing  had  to  be  removed  in  a 
particular  way,  at  a  particular  time.  The  cravat  he 
himself  removed  and  laid  carefully  in  its  old  folds,  then 
gave  it  to  the  servant,  who  was  waiting  with  a  piece  of 
paper  into  which  to  wrap  it,  and  to  put  it  precisely  in 
its  appointed  place.  "  Neither  in  this  case  nor  in  that 
of  the  hat  was  any  deviation  allowed."  When  its  turn 
came,  the  old  but  very  regular  watch  was  by  Kant  hini- 
self  drawn  from  his  pocket  and  hung  on  a  nail  be- 
tween the  barometer  and  thermometer,  so  as  to  have 
the  indicators  of  the  time  and  the  weather  together  and 
convenient  for  observation.     The  act  of  putting  on  the 

F  f  2 


436 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


night-clothes  was  performed  with  equal  regularity  and 
method.  In  summer  one,  in  winter  two  night-caps 
were  worn.  A  cloth  was  wrapped  around  his  neck ; 
it  was  first  neatly  smoothed  and  then  the  servant 
was  obliged  to  be  very  careful,  while  putting  it  on, 
not  to  let  it  become  wrinkled.  His  toilet  for  the  night 
completed,  he  would  take  some  pills ;  but  this  was  an 
act  which  he  did  not  want  his  friends  to  see,  because, 
he  said,  his  posture  was  altogether  too  peculiar. 

Showing  his  extremely  wasted  body  while  un- 
dressing,  he  would  say  softly  and  sadly,  ''  Ah,  gentle- 
men !  You  are  still  quick  and  young ;  but  look  at  my 
wretchedness  !  If  you  are  once  eighty  years  old,  you 
will  be  just  as  weak  and  helpless  as  I  am.  ...  I  can- 
not live  much  longer  ;  but  I  shall  leave  the  world  with 
a  pure  conscience  and  with  the  cheerful  consciousness 
of  having  intentionally  done  no  one  a  wrong  or  an 
injury."  When  Hasse  asked  him  with  reference  to  his 
heart,  "  But  how  will  it  be  if  it  is  not  right  under  the 
left  button-hole  ?  "  Kant  answered,  "  Then  restitution, 
reparation,  and  compensation  must  be  made,  in  order, 
as  far  as  possible,  to  make  it  right  and  repair  the 

fault." 

As  he  had  not  been  out  of  the  house  for  a  long 
time,  he  was  induced  in  the  spring  of  1802  to  enter 
his  garden  in  order  to  get  some  fresh  air  and  exercise. 
Everything  there  was  strange  to  him,  and  he  could  not 
comprehend  the  fact  that  it  was  his  garden  and  was 
next  to  his  house  ;  he  declared  that  he  did  not  know 
where  he  was,  said  that  he  felt  as  if  on  a  desert  island, 
and  was  anxious  to  enter  the  house  again.  After  this 
he  was  occasionally  taken  out  driving ;  but  the  time, 
even  if  very  short,  seemed  intolerably  long,  and  the 


RETURN   OF   SPRING. 


437 


change  from  his  accustomed  mode  of  life  and  the 
weariness  were  too  much  for  him.  He  had,  in  fact, 
lost  all  idea  of  the  measure  of  time,  so  that  a  few 
minutes  seemed  very  long,  and  he  called  the  short 
drives  "excursions,"  sometimes  "journeys,"  or  even 
"  long  journeys."  These  airings  might  have  been  less 
wearisome  if  nature  had  not  lost  all  attraction  for  him. 
When  told  that  spring  was  approaching,  that  the  sun 
was  getting  warmer  and  the  buds  were  appearing,  he 
would  answer  coldly,  "  Surely,  that  is  the  case  every 
year."  There  was  only  one  event  in  connexion  with 
the  return  of  spring  which  interested  him,  namely,  the 
fact  that  it  would  bring  back  a  certain  little  bird  which 
sang  in  his  garden  and  before  his  window.  If  the 
little  songster  delayed  his  coming,  he  would  say,  "  It 
must  be  very  cold  on  the  Appenines."  In  the  spring 
of  1803  he  Hstened  in  vain  for  its  cheerful  song,  and 
repeatedly  said,  in  a  disappointed,  melancholy  tone, 
"  My  little  bird  does  not  come." 

His  nights  were  often  sleepless  and  tormented  with 
horrible  dreams.  Frequently  he  wanted  the  presence 
of  his  servant,  who  at  the  ringing  of  the  bell  would 
immediately  hasten  to  his  room ;  but  Kant,  having  no 
notion  of  time,  never  waited  for  his  appearance,  but 
arose  and  tried  to  walk.  Owing  to  his  great  weakness, 
this  gave  occasion  for  many  falls,  which  were,  however 
generally  followed  by  no  more  serious  results  than  some 
blue  marks.  Wasianski,  fearing  that  they  might  prove 
serious,  thought  it  necessary  for  his  servant  to  sleep  in 
his  room  ;  Kant,  however,  objected  because  he  was  not 
accustomed  to  it,  and  insisted  that  he  could  not  sleep 
in  the  presence  of  another,  though  he  finally  yielded  to 
the  determined  counsel  of  his  friend. 


\y 


438 


THE   LIFE   OP   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


His  last  birthday,  April  22nd,  1803,  was  celebrated 
as  a  festival.  His  intimate  friends  had  been  invited,  and 
he  looked  forward  to  the  occasion  with  joy ;  but  when 
the  day  came  he  took  no  pleasure  in  the  entertainment, 
and  was  annoyed  by  the  noise  of  the  conversation  of 
the  large  company.  On  this  day  he  wrote  in  a 
memorandum-book,  "According  to  Scripture,  the 
days  of  our  years  are  threescore  years  and  ten ;  and  if 
by  reason  of  strength  they  be  fourscore  years,  yet  is 
their  strength  labour  and  sorrow." 

In  the  autumn  of  1803  his  seeing  eye  became  very 
weak,  and  his  room  had  to  be  darkened.  Prior  to  this 
time  he  had  been  able  to  read  even  fine  print  without 
glasses  ;  now  he  was  obliged  to  stop  reading  the  papers 
and  to  cease  writing ;  at  last  he  could  not  even  write 
his  name.  Whatever  he  used  had  to  be  placed  imme- 
diately before  him,  and  he  depended  more  on  the  sense 
of  touch  than  on  that  of  sight.  This  new  deprivation 
greatly  distressed  him,  and  he  often  sighed  heavily. 

There  was  also  a  marked  increase  of  weakness 
during  the  same  autumn.  Once,  in  the  absence  of  his 
servant,  he  was  wounded  by  a  fall,  and  blood  flowed 
freely  over  his  face  and  down  his  back.  It  was  there- 
fore thought  advisable  to  bring  his  widowed  sister, 
Mrs.  Theuer,  into  the  house,  to  assist  in  taking  charge 
of  him.  As  her  presence  at  first  disturbed  him,  she 
took  her  place  behind  his  chair ;  after  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  her,  and  had  been  the  recipient  of  her  kind 
services,  he  was  pleased  to  have  her  about  him.  She 
attended  him  kindly  and  faithfully  to  the  end. 

Even  in  his  old  age,  and  while  very  weak  and  fre- 
quently indisposed,  he  was  not  really  sick  till  near  the 
close  of  life;  and  as  late  as  1802  he  said,  "I  have  all 


STRANGE    NOTION    RESPECTING   THE    ATWOSPUEJiE.      439 

the  four  requisites  of  a  healthy  man  :  a  good  appetite, 
good  sleep,  good  digestion,  and  painlessness.     I  have 
never  been  sick,  have  never  had  a  physician,  and  hope 
never  to  need  any.     That  I  am  becoming  so  infirm 
probably  arises  from  a  revolution   in   the    strata  of 
the  air  which  occurred  several  years  ago  ;  when  this 
changes  and  all  moves  along  again  as  usual,  I  may  re- 
cover.''    For  years  he  complained  of  a  pressure  on  his 
head,  sometimes   speaking  of  it  as  a  kind  of  cramp  of 
the  brain,  which  interfered  greatly  with  his  intellectual 
activity.    In  1796  there  had  been  an  unusual  mortality 
among  cats  in  Basle,  Vienna,  Copenhagen,  and  other 
places,  which  was  ascribed  by  a  learned  paper  to  the 
electric  condition  of  the  atmosphere.     Not  only  did 
Kant  adopt  this  view,  but  he  also  explained  the  pecu- 
Har  feeling  in  his  head,  which  began  at  that  time,  in 
the  same  way.     "  Even  the  sickness  of  other  persons 
was  now  also  attributed  to  this  cause,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  those   of  whom  he  knew  that  they  took  beer, 
which  he  never  drank,  and  which  he  regarded  as  itself 
a  sufficient  cause   of  sickness   and  death.      Now  he 
ascribed  nearly   everything  to  the   electricity    of  the 
atmosphere ;  and  the  sky  might  be  perfectly  clear  or  in 
anymeasure  cloudy,  it  wasequally  regarded  by  him  as  an 
indication  of  that  state  of  the  air  which  was  dangerous 
to  life  or  at  least  injurious  to  health.     Only  from  a 
change    in    the    atmosphere   did    he    expect    conva- 
lescence."      He    thought    he    had    noticed   pecuhar 
appearances  in  the  clouds,  which  were  caused  by  elec- 
tricity ;  and  that  these  electric  phenomena  were  the 
cause  of  his  ill-health,  was  a  notion  to  which  he  clung 
with  such  tenacity  that  no  amount  of  argument  could 
change  his  opinion. 


440 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


Kant's  first  real  sickness  occurred  on  October  8tli, 
1803.  Being  very  fond  of  English  cheese,  he  had  eaten 
an  unusual  amount  of  it  on  the  7th,  and  the  next 
morning,  while  led  by  his  sister,  he  suddenly  sank  to 
the  floor,  and  was  unconscious,  appearing  as  if  he  had 
been  struck  by  apoplexy.  In  about  an  hour  conscious- 
ness returned ;  but  for  the  first  time  in  his  life  he  was 
confined  to  his  bed  for  several  days.  On  the  12th 
Wasianski  dined  with  him,  and  resisted  his  earnest  en- 
treaties to  be  permitted  again  to  partake  of  the  cheese. 

About  this  time  two  efforts  were  made  to  rob  him, 
both  by  women.  Once,  when  he  was  alone  in  his  room, 
a  gentle  tap  was  given  at  the  door  of  his  study  and  a 
well-dressed  woman  entered.  At  this  unexpected  and 
unusual  visit  Kant  sprang  up.  This  surprised  her,  as 
she  had  thought  him  too  weak  to  stand ;  but  she  had 
presence  of  mind  enough  to  ask  quietly  for  the  time  of 
day.  Taking  out  his  watch  and  holding  it  more 
firmly  than  usual,  he  answered  her  question.  She 
thanked  him  and  turned  to  leave,  but  had  scarcely, 
closed  the  door  when  she  again  opened  it,  saying  that 
his  neighbour,  whose  name  she  mentioned,  desired  to 
set  his  watch  by  Kant's,  and  had  sent  her  to  ask  the 
loan  of  it  for  that  purpose.  The  refusal  to  let  her  take 
his  watch  along  was  given  with  such  force  and  decision 
that  she  at  once  left. 

Another  woman  desired  to  see  him  about  a  matter 
which  she  wanted  to  talk  over  with  him  alone; 
but  Kant  referred  her  to  Wasianski,  who  recognized 
her  as  a  notorious  character  who  recently,  under 
threat  of  violence,  had  extorted  money  from  a  lady. 
She  informed  him  that  her  aim  in  calling  on  Kant  was 
to  demand  of  him  a  dozen  silver  spoons,  and  some 


ATTEMPTS   TO   ROB   HIM, 


441 


gold  rings,  which,  she  claimed,  her  husband  had  pawned 
to  him  against  her  will ;  in  case  she  could  not  find 
them,  she  was  willing  to  accept  their  equivalent  in 
money.  Wasianski  threatened  her  with  imprisonment ; 
but  after  she  had  been  frightened,  and  had  promised 
never  to  enter  Kant's  house  again,  she  was  permitted 

to  depart. 

At  the  close  of  1803  Kant  was  unable  to  write  his 
name,  and  was  so  blind  that    he  could  not  find  an 
object  immediately  in  front  of  him.     He  was  too  much 
accustomed  to   have    guests   for    dinner,   to   deprive 
himself  of  their  presence  now  ;  but  after  his  attack  of 
illness,  the  life  and  cheerfulness  at  the  table  were  gone. 
He   would  still   begin  the  conversation   as  formerly, 
though  feebly,    indistinctly    and   disconnectedly      It 
was  his  desire  that  there  should  be  talking ;  but  as  he 
had  long  been  the  leader   and   the  inspiration  of  the 
table-talk,  he  was  not  pleased  to  have  his  guests  now 
talk  to  each  other  and  not  to  him.     "  As  he  was  now 
weak  and  hard   of   hearing,    it    was    not  possible   to 
converse    with    him;    therefore   he    generally    spoke 
alone,  his  subjects  usually  being  the  nature   of  the 
food,  dark  reminiscences  of  the  past,  and  his  recent 
sickness.     His    old    friends    knew   how   to   turn   his 
attention  to  reminiscences  of  earlier  times,  respecting 
which  his  memory  was  still  faithful."     After  he  had 
been  at  table  about  half  an  hour  he  became  so  weary 
that  he  had  to  be  led  to  his  room.     As  he  gradually 
became  still  weaker,  only  his  older  acquaintances  were 
invited.     His  sentences  were  usually  broken  and  in- 
coherent, so  that  even  his  intimate  friends  could  not 
understand  him,  and  he  found  it  difficult  to  grasp  the 
meaning  of  simple  sentences  addressed  to  him ;  but 


442 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


occasionally  lie  had  more  lucid  intervals  and  was  in 
good  spirits.  Even  after  his  illness,  when  he  could  no 
longer  converse  about  ordinary  affairs,  he,  who  had 
spent  his  life  in  scholarly  pursuits,  was  occasionally 
able  to  speak  on  learned  subjects,  such  as  physical 
geography,  physics,  and  chemistry.  On  the  Monday 
before  his  death,  when  he  had  lost  all  interest  in  the 
conversation  of  his  friends  at  table,  Wasianski  pro- 
posed that  they  should  speak  on  learned  affairs^ 
declaring  that  he  was  sure  Kant  would  take  part  in 
the  conversation,  which  the  others  questioned.  When 
a  question  on  a  scholarly  subject  was  proposed,  he 
gave  a  brief  but  lucid  answer. 

There  are  numerous  details  of  this  period,  all  of 
which  present  pictures  which  are  calculated  to  move 
us  wdth  the  deepest  compassion.  The  profound 
philosopher  and  brilliant  companion  had  long  ceased 
to  exist ;  and  even  the  ruin  gave  no  idea  of  the 
majestic  greatness  which  had  departed.  It  is  not 
surprising  that  he  longed  for  death  and  said,  ''  Life  is 
a  burden  to  me  ;  I  am  tired  of  bearing  it.  And  if  this 
night  the  angel  of  death  were  to  come  and  call  me 
hence,  I  would  raise  my  hands  and  say,  God  be 
praised."  Sometimes  he  would  add,  "Yes,  if  an  evil 
demon  sat  on  my  shoulder  and  whispered  in  my  ear, 
'  You  have  made  men  unhappy,'  it  would  be  otherwise.'' 
His  moral  purposes  remained  unshaken,  and  he  deter- 
mined to  bear  whatever  burdens  might  be  placed  on 
him.  Suicide  he  regarded  as  cowardly,  and  cowardice 
he  despised.  The  name  poltroon  was,  in  his  estimation, 
a  designation  of  extreme  baseness,  and  he  said, ''  I  am 
no  poltroon ;  I  have  strength  enough  yet  to  take  my 
life,  but  this  I  regard  as  immoral."    His  abhorrence  of 


EXTREME    WEAKNESS. 


443 


suicide  was  so  great  that  he  declared  that  it  was  not 
easy  to  find  anything  more  contemptible,  and  he  thought 
one  ought  to  spit  in  the  face  of  him  who  took  his  own 

life. 

At  last  he  frequently  failed  to  recognize  his  most 

intimate  friends,  even  Wasianski,  his   sister,  and  his 
servant.     He  became  so  feeble  that  he  could  hardly 
sit  in  his  arm-chair,  though  supported  by  pillows.     The 
lowest  possible  degree  of  physical  weakness    seemed 
to  have  been  rcLshed  on  February  3rd,  1804,  when  all 
his  energy  was  apparently  gone.     After  this  he  took, 
properly  speaking,  no  food.     Yet  there  were  occasions 
when  he  exerted  his  will  to  an  extraordinary  degree. 
On  this  very  day  a  professor  of  the  university,  who  was 
his  physician  and   friend,  called ;  he  had  been  very 
kind  and  attentive,  and  had  refused  all  compensation 
for  his  services.     Kant  arose  from  his  chair  when  he 
entered,  offered  him  his  hand,  and  uttered  some  in- 
coherent   sentences,  which   Wasianski  interpreted  to 
mean  that  Kant  wanted  to  express  his  gratitude  to  the 
physician  for  his  great  kindness  in  calling,  especially 
since  his  position  as  rector  of  the  university  made  it 
difi&cult  for  him  to  spare  the  time.     Kant  said  that 
was  what    he   meant.      He   almost  sank   down  from 
weakness,  and  was  urged  by  the  physician  to  be  seated, 
but  he  still  hesitated.     Wasianski  intimated  that  Kant's 
refinement  would  not  let  him  sit  until  the  physician 
had  first  taken  his  seat.     The  professor  at  first  doubted 
whether  this  was  the  reason ;  but  he  was  convinced 
of  it  when  he  took  his  seat  and  Kaut  did  the  same ; 
and  he  was  almost  moved  to  tears  when  Kant,  with 
great  effort,  said,  ''  The  feeling  of  humanity  has  not 
yet  left  me." 


444 


THE    LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


^J 


On  the  same  day  a  few  friends,  as  usual,  were  his 
guests,  though  he  could  eat  nothing.  Wasianski  and 
another  friend  were  with  him  at  dinner  on  Sunday, 
February  5th ;  he  was,  however,  so  weak  that  he  was 
unable  to  sit  upright,  and  he  sank  together  in  his 
chair.  On  the  next  day  he  took  no  part  whatever  in 
the  conversation,  and  his  eyes  stared;  on  the  7th 
there  were  three  guests  at  table,  but  Kant  was  in  bed. 
Wasianski  was  the  only  guest  on  the  8th ;  Kant, 
indeed,  came  to  the  table,  but  he  ate  nothing  and 
hurried  to  bed.  The  daily  meetings  of  friends  for  so 
many  years  around  that  hospitable  board,  with  their 
delightful  associations,  their  intellectual  feasts,  their 
wit,  humour,  and  anecdotes,  were  over.  Kant  became 
unconscious  on  the  evening  of  the  9th  ;  he  was  conscious 
the  next  morning,  but  not  the  remainder  of  the  day. 
He  was  restful  on  the  11th,  but  speechless;  in  answer 
to  Wasianski' s  question,  whether  he  recognized  him, 
Kant  gave  him  a  kiss.  On  Sunday  morning,  the 
12th  of  February,  some  water  was  given  him ;  after 
quenching  his  thirst,  he  said,  ''It  is  well."  These 
were  his  last  words.  Early  on  that  morning  he  had 
stretched  out  his  body  at  full  length,  and  he  remained 
in  that  posture  till  death.  As  the  clock  struck  eleven 
on  that  Sunday  forenoon  he  quietly  breathed  his  last, 
in  the  presence  of  his  sister,  his  nephew,  Wasianski, 
another  friend,  and  his  servant.  He  was  two  months 
and  ten  days  less  than  eighty  years  old.  It  was  not 
sickness  but  marasmus  which  consumed  his  strength, 
and  Wasianski  says,  "His  death  was  not  a  violent 
act  of  nature,  but  simply  a  cessation  of  life." 

The  news  of  his  long-expected  death  spread  rapidly 
through  the  city,  and  all  classes  felt  the  loss  of  their 


DEATH. 


445 


most  celebrated  citizen.     "  The  day  was  so  clear  and 
cloudless  that  few  of  the  kind  occur  in  K5nigsberg  m 
a  period  of  twenty  years ;  only  a  small  cloud  hovered 
in  the  zenith  over  the  azure  of  the  sky.     A  soldier  on 
the  Schmiede  Bridge  is  said  to  have  called  attention  to 
it  with  the  remark,  '  See,  that  is  Kant's  soul  flying 
heavenward.'     This  was  regarded  as  an  evidence  of 
the  knowledge  which  even  the  common  people  had  of 
Kant,  and  of  their  idea  of  the  purity  of  his  soul,  which, 
they   thought,    was    at   once   taken   up   to  the   pure 
ether."     A  letter  written  from  the  city  the  day  after 
his  death,  says, "  K6nigsberg  has  lost  one  of  its  noblest 
inhabitants.     His  faithfulness,  his   kindness,  his  up- 
rightness,  and  his  sociability,  will  long  be  subjects  of 
painfully-precious  remembrance  for  all  who  were  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  him."  Q^^) 

His  body  was  so  dried  up  that  it  seemed  to  be 
scarcely  more  than  a  skeleton,  and  its  appearance 
created  universal  astonishment.  Years  before  his 
death  he  spoke  humorously  of  his  emaciated  condition, 
and  said  that  he  had  attained  the  minimum  of  muscular 
substance ;  but  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  still 
more  emaciated,  ajid  his  muscles  had  disappeared  to 
such  an  extent  that  his  body  almost  seemed  like  that 

of  a  mummy. 

His  head  was  shorn,  and  a  mould  of  it  was  taken. 
He  had  expressed  the  desire  not  to  have  his  body 
exposed  to  the  gaze  of  the  curious,  and  had  written  a 
paper  respecting  his  funeral,  requesting  to  be  buried 
quietly,  early  in  the  morning,  his  remains  to  be  fol- 
lowed  only  by  his  guests.  As  Wasianski  had,  how- 
ever  represented  to  him  the  difficulties  of  such  an 
arrangement,  Kant  left  the  whole  matter  to  his  judg- 


V 


446 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


ment.  The  remains  were  kept  for  sixteen  days,  and 
the  desire  to  view  them  was  general ;  day  after  day 
multitudes  came  to  see  for  the  last  time  the  little 
that  was  mortal  of  the  immortal  Kant. 

On  the  28th  of  February,  one  of  the  finest  days  of 
winter,  the  funeral  took  place  amid  unusual  solemnities. 
The  streets  through  which  the  procession  passed  had 
been  cleared  of  snow,  and  the  city  authorities  had 
issued  an  appeal  to  the  people  to  show  proper  respect 
for  the  funeral  of  the  man  who,  on  account  of  his 
teachings  and  life,  was  so  eminently  worthy  of  regard  ; 
but  the  inhabitants  of  Konigsberg  esteemed  the  illus- 
trious services  of  Kant  too  highly  to  need  this  official 
recognition  of  his  eminence  and  worth  to  inspire  them 
with  a  proper  respect  for  his  memory.  At  three  in 
the  afternoon  the  body  was  borne  by  students  from 
the  house  to  the  cathedral,  which  was  also  the  uni- 
versity church,  where  the  services  took  place.  His 
sister  and  nephew  were  the  only  relatives  present ; 
among  the  chief  mourners  were  between  twenty  and 
thirty  of  his  guests  and  more  intimate  friends.  Headed 
by  a  detachment  of  soldiers,  there  was  a  long  pro- 
cession, consisting  of  the  professors  and  students,  the 
governor  of  the  province,  numerous  civil  and  miUtary 
officers,  the  ministers  of  the  city,  and  many  other 
persons  of  all  ranks  and  classes  from  Konigsberg  and 
the  vicinity.  Solemnly,  amid  the  tolling  of  all  the 
church  bells,  the  procession  moved  through  the  crowds 
which  lined  the  streets,  to  the  cathedral,  where  the 
curator  of  the  university,  the  rector,  the  senators,  and 
other  high  officials  and  dignitaries  received  the  body. 
The  church  was  illuminated  with  hundreds  of  wax 
candles.     The  coffin   was  placed  on  a   catafalque   in 


FUNERAL. 


447 


front  of  the  altar.  At  the  head  stood  a  marble  bust  of 
Kant ;  at  the  foot  were  two  inverted  torches ;  at  the 
sides  eight  silver  lamps  were  burning;  and  on  the 
altar  lay  the  principal  works  of  the  great  philosopher. 
The  coffin  bore  the  inscription,  "Cineres  mortales 
immortalis  Kantii."  The  solemn  services  consisted  of 
a  dirge  and  two  addresses,  after  which  the  remains  were 
placed  in  the  Professors'  Vault  beside  the  cathedral. 

There  was  a  strong  desire  to  secure  mementoes  of 
the  great  Kant.  His  silver  hair  was  braided  into  rings 
and  sold ;  and  the  demand  for  these  souvenirs  was  so 
great,  that  one  of  his  biographers  suspects  that  there 
was  a  miraculous  increase  of  his  hair,  as  in  the  case  of 
relics  of  saints,  and  that  more  was  sold  than  ever 
adorned  his  head.  At  the  sale  of  his  effects,  trifles, 
such  as  a  tobacco-pouch,  in  itself  worthless  and  used 
probably  for  twenty  years,  brought  large  sums.  The 
three-cornered  hat  which  he  was  accustomed  to  wear 
in  his  study,  and  which  had  done  service  for  twenty  or 
thirty  years,  was  sold  for  a  high  price  to  an  English- 

man. 

His  money  and  property  amounted  to  21,539  thalers. 

In  addition  to  his  regular  salary,  he  had  received  the 

fees  of  the  students  who  heard  his  private  lectures,  and 

there  had  also  been  an  income  from  the  sale  of  his 

books.     The  revenue  from  his  works,  however,  began 

late,  namely,  after  the  success  of  the  "Kritik"  was 

established ;  before  the  appearance  of  this  work  his 

books   were,  probably,  published  mostly  at  his  own 

expense.     His  early  struggles  with  poverty  had  taught 

him  frugal  habits;   his  wants  were  limited,   and  he 

valued  money  too  highly  to  waste  it.     He  was  very 

economical,  some  thought  excessively  so ;  but  he  was 


448 


THE    rjFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


not  miserly.  He  was  provident,  and  was  anxious  to 
secure  a  competence,  so  as  to  be  independent.  Debt 
he  carefully  avoided,  and  he  said  that  a  rap  at  the  door 
never  gave  him  anxiety  lest  there  might  be  a  creditor 
there.  As  his  money  accumulated,  it  was  judiciously 
put  at  interest  for  him  by  his  friends.  It  was  in  this 
way  that  he  secured  a  competence  and  also  the  means 
to  help  his  relatives,  and  was  able  to  leave  a  consider- 
able sum  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

His  business  manager  and  executor,  Wasianski, 
received  3076  thalers ;  Professor  G-ensichen  inherited 
his  library  and  500  thalers  ;  his  aged  cook,  who  had 
been  in  his  service  for  many  years,  received  666,  and 
KaufiFmann,  his  last  servant,  250.  Kant  had  ordered 
that  3500  thalers  should  be  set  apart,  so  as  to  secure 
for  his  childless  sister,  Mrs.  Theuer,  one  hundred 
thalers  annually  ;  the  remainder  of  the  interest,  forty 
thalers,  was  to  be  given  to  Lampe.  The  rest  of  his 
money  he  willed  to  his  nephews  and  nieces,  and  their 
descendants,  who  were  also  to  receive  the  3500  thalers 
after  the  death  of  Mrs.  Theuer  and  Lampe. 

In  order  to  perpetuate  his  memory,  a  Kant  Society 
was  formed  in  Konigsberg  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr. 
Motherby.  The  first  members  consisted  of  the  more 
intimate  acquaintances  of  the  philosopher,  the  number 
who  assembled  being  rarely  more  than  twelve  or 
eighteen  persons.  They  met  on  Kant's  birthday,  at 
first  in  his  house,  afterwards  in  some  other  public 
place.  The  dinner  on  such  occasions  was  made  as 
much  as  possible  like  those  given  by  Kant ;  it  was  a 
plain  meal,  with  a  pint-bottle  of  red  or  white  wine 
before  each  guest.  An  address  on  Kant's  life,  character, 
works,  or  philosophy,  was  delivered  by  the  presiding 


KANT   SOCIETY. 


449 


officer  or  "Bean-King,"  as  he  was  called  from  the 
manner  of  his  appointment.  At  every  celebration  a 
cake  was  eaten,  in  which  a  bean  was  hid;  and  the 
member  who  took  the  piece  with  the  bean  became  the 
Bean-King.  As  the  personal  friends  of  Kant  died, 
others  who  had  attended  his  lectures  or  were  attached 
to  his  philosophy  were  selected  to  fill  the  vacancies, 
but  the  number  was  limited  to  thirty.  In  1846  only 
three  of  the  original  members  were  present,  and  the 
last  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  died  in  1848.  Many 
of  the  addresses  delivered  before  the  Society,  which 
still  exists,  have  been  published,  and  are  an  important 
contribution  to  the  Kant  literature. 

In  1809  Kant's  friend,  Scheffner,  formed  the  plan  of 
converting  the  Professors'  Vault,  which  was  no  longer 
used  as  a  place  of  interment,  into  a  walk.  A  gallery, 
136  feet  long  and  fifteen  wide,  was  constructed  and 
Kant's  remains  were  placed  in  the  eastern  end. 
Over  the  main  entrance  were  inscribed  the  words, 
"  Stoa  Kantiana,"  and  a  marble  bust,  by  Schadow, 
was  placed  over  the  grave.  On  April  22nd,  1810, 
Kant's  friends  met  to  celebrate  his  birthday.  After 
an  address  by  the  philosopher,  Professor  Herbart, 
they  proceeded  to  the  grave  and  unveiled  the  bust ; 
subsequently  it  was.  however,  removed  for  protection 

to  the  university. 

For  some  years  Kant's  grave  was  entirely  neglected, 
and  it  was  described  as  desolate  and  almost  for- 
gotten, and  some  even  questioned  whether  his  remains 
were  there.  Repeated  efforts  have  been  made  smce 
1873  to  secure  the  money  necessary  to  make  the 
tomb  of  Kant  worthy  of  his  great  name,  and  these 
have  finally  been  crowned  with  success.     During  the 

^  S 


450 


THE   LIFE   OF    IMMANUEL   KANT, 


Centennial  of  the  "  Kritik,"  in  the  summer  of  1881,  a 
monument  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  chapel  was  com- 
pleted and  dedicated  to  his  memory,  and  in  it  his 
remains  were  deposited. 


APPENDIX 


1.  In  order  to  avoid  too  frequent  reference  to  authorities,  I  here 
mention  the  most  important  books  used  in  the  preparation  of  this 

volume. 

Three  biographies  of  the  first  importance  were  published  by  inti- 
mate friends  of  Kant :  Borowski's  "  Darstellung  des  Lebens  und 
Cbarakters  Immanuel  Kant's,"  1804;  Jachmann's  **  Immanuel 
Kant  geschildert  in  Briefen  an  einen  Freund,''  1804;  and  Wasian- 
ski's  "Immanuel  Kant  in  seinen  letzten  Lebensjahren,"  1804. 

Two  other  friends  contributed  important  facts  in  books  which 
appeared  about  the  same  time ;  Rink's  "  Ansichten  aus  ^  I.^  Kant's 
Leben,"  and  Hasse's  "  Merkwuerdige  Aeusserungen  Kant's.'' 

A  not  very  reliable,  anonymous  biography  was  published  in  1804, 
entitled,  "  I.  Kant's  Biograpie,  Leipzig,  O.  Weigel."  This  work 
was  to  comprise  four  volumes,  but  only  two  appeared.  Another 
anonymous  book,  printed  in  the  same  year,  was  named,  "  Aeusse- 
rungen uber  Kant,  seinen  Charakter  und  seine  Meinungen.  Von 
einem  billigen  Verehrer  seiner  Verdienste."  Professor  J.  D. 
Metzger,  of  Konigsberg,  was  discovered  to  be  the  author.  Another 
anonymous  book  of  the  same  period  bore  the  name,  "  Fragmente 

aus  Kant's  Leben." 

In  1842  Professor  F.  W.  Schubert  published  the  best  biography 
of  Kant  in  the  German  language  ;  it  is  found  in  vol.  xi.  of  Kant's 
works  edited  by  Rosenkranz  and  Schubert  ^^ 

In  1860  Dr.  R.  Reicke  issued  a  small  book  styled,  "  Kantiana. 
It  contains  a  funeral  address  on  Kant,  delivered  April  23rd,  1804, 
by  Professor  Dr.  Wald,  of  Konigsberg,  and  much  other  valuable 
material  from  the  university  library  of  that  city. 

The  journals  published  in  Konigsberg,  the  "  Preussiche  Provmzial- 
blatter,"  ''  Neue  Preussische  Provinzialblatter,"  and  "  Altpreussische 
Monatsschrift,"  contain  many  valuable  articles  on  Kant. 

a  g  2 


452 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


Much  of  the  literature  cotemporary  with  Kant,  such  as  journals, 
letters,  biographies,  and  other  books,  has  been  found  serviceable. 
The  principal  authorities  not  already  named  are  mentioned  in  the 
following  notes.  Diligent  search  has  been  made  for  everything^ 
calculated  to  throw  light  on  the  life  of  Kant  ;  and  hundreds  of 
volumes  have  been  used  to  which  no  special  reference  is  necessary, 
but  the  consultation  of  which  was  important  for  understanding 
Kant's  life  and  works  and  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  For  the 
great  thinker's  views  I  am  indebted  chiefly  to  his  own  works  ;  in 
some  cases  I  used  his  own  editions  ;  in  others,  those  of  Hartenstein, 
and  of  Rosenkranz  and  Schubert ;  and  I  also  made  use  of  Tieftrunk's 
edition  of  his  smaller  works. 

Very  naturally  numerous  traditions  respecting  Kant  have,  in  the 
course  of  time,  become  current,  especially  in  Konigsberg.  Among 
these  are  two  stories  of  attempts  to  murder  him,  one  by  an  insane 
butcher,  and  another  by  an  escaped  prisoner.  As  these  are  based 
on  no  reliable  evidence,  and  are  wholly  unworthy  of  ciedence,  no 
reference  is  made  to  them  in  the  text. 

2.  In  1762,  550  vessels  landed  at  Konigsberg;  in  1773,  861. 
The  exports  consisted  chiefly  of  grain,  wood,  and  flax ;  the  imports 
were  mostly  colonial  wares,  manufactured  articles,  and  wines.  In 
1784  and  1792  the  yearly  exports  amounted  to  over  four  million 
thalers,  though  generally  they  amounted  to  two  and  a  half  or  three 
millions  about  that  time.  In  1795-6  the  income  for  excise,  duty, 
and  licences,  exceeded  that  of  any  other  city  in  the  kingdom, 
amounting  to  554,559  thalers.     There   were   143   oflftcers   to  attend 

to  this  business. 

3.  The  principal  authorities  I  have  used  on  Konigsberg  are  : 
Faber :  "  Konigsberg  in  Preussen  ;'*  "  Neue  Preussische  Provinzial- 
blatter,"  1854,  197;  "Jahrbiicher  der  Preussischen  Monarchic," 
1804,  vol.  ii.  270  ;  and  "  Altpreussische  Monatsschrift,"  vol.  i.  353. 

4.  Immanuel  changed  the  name  from  Cant  to  Kant.  This 
change  is  accounted  for  by  a  story  which  indicates  his  sensitiveness. 
A  boy  teased  him  by  saying  that  the  C  in  his  name  should  be 
pronounced  like  a  Z,  so  that  Cant  would  become  Zant.  This 
induced  him  to  write  it  Kant.  In  the  catalogue  of  the  gymnasium 
which  he  attended,  the  name  is  spelt  in  five  ways :  Cant,  Candt, 
Cante,  Kant,  Kandt.     Reicke,  "Kantiana,"  46,  47. 

5.  Reicke  :  "  Kantiana,"  5. 

6.  Rink  :  "  Ansichten  aus  I.  Kant's  Leben,"  13. 

7.  "Neue  Preussische  Provinzialblatter,"  1852,  2,  81. 

8.  "  Martin  Knutzen  und  seine  Zeit,"  von  Benno  Erdmann,  34. 


APPENDIX. 


453 


9  The  term  Pietistic  was  applied  to  the  school  by  its  enemies  as 
a  term  of  reproach,  and  they  spoke  of  it  as  the  Pietistic  seminary 
or  the  Pietistic  inn.  Kant  relates  that  while  he  was  a  pupil,  a 
young  loafer  one  day  entered  the  room  of  Schiffert,  and  in  a  spirit 
of  ridicule  asked,  "  Is  this  the  Pietistic  school  ?  "  Schiffert  had  him 
soundly  whipped,  after  which  he  sent  him  away  with  the  remark, 
"Now  you  know  where  the  Pietistic  school  is."  Hasse  :  "Merk- 
wiirdige  Aeusserungen  Kant's,"  36. 

10  "  Pietism  must  therefore  not  yet  have  degenerated  into  fana- 
ticism, and  the  discipline  of  the  school  cannot  have  been  so  fearfully 
severe  as  some  ungrateful  pupils-it  had  many  more  who  were 
grateful— have  at  times  represented."     Wald's  address,  in  Reicke  s 

"  Kantiana,"  6.  ,  .  r  n 

11.  Ruhnken,  a  fellow-pupil  of  Kant,  wrote  to  him  as  follows  : 
"  Anni  triginta  sunt  ipsi,  cum  uterque  totrica  ilia  quidem,  sed  util. 
tamen  nee  pcenitenda  fanaticorum  disciplina  continebamur.  Kink  : 
"  Tiberius  Hemsterhuys  und  Ruhnken,"  267. 

12.  "  Streit  der  Facultaten,"  Ros.  and  Schub.  vol.  x.  p.  313. 

13.  Article  by  A.  Rogge,  Altp.  M.  1878-79. 

14.  Biedermann,  "  Deutschland  im  18.  Jahrhundert,    u.  3,  6.9. 

15.  From  the  spring  of  1758  to  that  of  1759  the  total  income 
was  only  3665  thalers.  F*  one  thaler  twenty-five  hours  of  instruc- 
tion were  given.  N.P.P.B.,  1853,  241.  Cunde,  who  was  there  at 
the  same  time  as  Kant,  had  twenty-three  teachers  in  three  and  a 
half  years.  As  soon  as  the  candidates  for  the  ministry  received  an 
appointment  as  preachers,  they  left  and  other  teachers  took  their 
place.     "  The  scholars  in  Prima  had  to  submit  to  three  teachers  in 

philosophy."     Do.  250.  „         a, 

16    Rink  :  "  Hemsterhuys  und  Ruhnken,"  80,  81. 

17.  In  the  summer  of  1731  there  were  443  students,  of  whom 
219  were  theological,  125  juridical,  37  medical,  and  62  philosophical. 
In  the  winter  1731-32  there  were  442,  of  whom  208  studied  theolo^, 
89  law,  47  medicine,  28  cameralistics,  and  70  belonged  to  the 
philosophical  faculty.  PP.B.,  1832,  279.  In  1744,  at  its  second 
centennial  celebration,  it  is  said  to  have  had  44  professors  and  1032 
students  of  whom  992  were  Lutheran,  21   Reformed,  13  Catholic, 

nd  6  belonged  to  the  Greek  Church.  ^.P-P-B.,  Neue  Folge  vo, 
ix  172  I  think  this  a  mistake,  and  suppose  the  author  simply 
added  the  number  of  students  in  summer  and  winter,  and  thus  counted 

most  of  them  twice.  „       ,    .. 

18.  Arnoldt  :   "  Historic  der  Konigsberger  Universitat,     vol.  ii. 

183. 


454 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


19.  "  The  chairs  were  occupied  mostly  by  men  with  no  scientific 
reputation  ;  the  lectures  were  delivered  in  strict  scholastic  formulas, 
partly  yet  in  the  Latin  language  ;  whatever  was  necessary  as  a  pre- 
paration for  the  examination  ordered  by  the  state  was  taught  in 
meagre  dictations  ;  the  students  were  trained  to  empty  formalities 
for  spiritless  discussions  ;  and  owing  to  the  isolated  position  of  the 
university,  no  intellectual  inspiration  was  spread  by  it  over  the 
land.'*     N.P.P.B.,  1854,  198. 

20.  See  on  this  whole  subject,  "  Martin  Knutzen  und  seine 
Zeit,"  by  Benno  Erdmann,  to  which  I  am  chiefly  indebted  for  these 
facts. 

21.  His  principal  metaphysical  book,  "  Systema  causarum  efficien- 
tium,'*  passed  through  two  editions  ;  his  "  De  immaterialitate 
animi "  was  translated  into  German  j  and  a  book  on  the  "  Defence 
of  the  Christian  Religion,"  which  was  aimed  chiefly  at  English 
deism,  passed  through  five  editions.  Eminent  cotemporaries  speak 
highly  of  him,  and  Hamann  gays,  "  I  was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated 
Knutzen.** 

22.  N.P.P.B.,  1854,  202. 

23.  Reicke,  50. 

24.  In  the  biographical  sketch  prepared  by  Borowski  and  reviewed 
by  Kant,  the  statement  occurs  that  several  attempts  had  been  made 
by  Kant  to  preach  in  the  country  ;  but  another  person  being  preferred 
in  an  appointment  to  a  school  for  which  he  had  also  applied,  he 
abandoned  the  thought  of  entering  the  ministry.  Kant  crossed  out 
this  part  of  the  sketch ;  for  what  reason  Borowski,  who  says  that 
the  statement  is  nevertheless  true,  did  not  know.  To  another 
friend  Kant  declared  that  he  had  once  prepared  a  sermon  on  a  certain 
text;  but  that  may  have  been  before  he  left  the  university.  Kant*3 
studies  at  the  university,  and  the  statement  of  Heilsberg  quoted  in 
the  text,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was  not  preparing  for  the 
ministry.  Borowski  must  have  been  mistaken,  a  view  also  taken  by 
Benno  Erdmann,  in  his  **  Life  of  Knutzen,**  133,  note.  Kant's  lack 
of  sympathy  with  Pietism,  religious  doubts,  and  his  preference  for 
other  studies  than  theology,  were  probably  his  main  reasons  for 
failing  to  comply  with  the  wish  of  his  parents  and  his  benefactor. 
Dr.  Schiilz. 

25.  "  Gedanken  von  der  wahren  Schatzung  der  lebendigen  Krafte 
und  Beurtheilung  der  Beweise,  deren  sich  Herr  Leibnitz  und  andere 
Mechaniker  in  dieser  Streitsache  bedient  haben^  nebst  einigen 
vorhergehenden  Betrachtungen,  welche  die  Kraft  der  Korper 
iiberhaupt  betreffen.*' 


APPENDIX. 


455 


26.  "  Kant  here  appears  altogether  as  an  adherent  of  that  freer 
tendency  of  Wolfianism  to  whose  most  decided  advocates  Knutzen 
belonged.  That  he  is  governed  everywhere  in  the  .«^ost  essential 
points  by  the  spirit  of  the  Leibnitz-Wolfian  doctrines  is  evident  from 
every  paragraph  of  this  book.'*      "  Life  of  Knutzen     143. 

27    Biedermann,  ii.  1.  522.     Forty  thalers  is  here  given  as  the 

annual  pay. 

29    ^AlSine  Naturgeschichte   und  Theorie    des    Himmela 
oderVersueh  von  der  Verfassung  und  dem  mechanischen  U.sprunge 
des   ganzen  Weltgebaudes  nach  Newton'schen  Grundsatzen  abge- 

'"S'privatim  docentes,  professores  extraordinaru,  and  professor^^^^ 
ordinarii.  For  tbe  first,  called  by  tbe  Germans  Pnvat-Docent  I  use 
the  word  tutor.  From  a  tutor  in  private  families  the  term  .s  always 
sufficiently  distinguished  by  the  context.  ,,,.„,•„  » 

31.  "  Meditationum  quarundam  de  igne  succ.ncta  delmeatio. 

32.  "  Principiorum  primorum  cognitionis  metaphysics  nova  delu- 

"tf  "Metaphysice   cum   geometria  juncts    usus   in   philosophia 

"sT-Thus  the  forty.five  year  old  Kant,  who  in  1763  had  received 
the  s'econd  prize  from  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences;  who  already 
in  1764  had  been  designed  for  an  ordinary  professorship  by  the 
cabinet;  and  who  in  1769  had  received  an  honourable  c^U  to  an 
"dinar;  professorship  in  another  university,  was  not  Pe-'"ed  - 
this  year  to  announce  his  lectures  to  the  students  m  the  official 
catalogue."     N.P.P.B.,  1846,  459. 

fe  ^hTs^^vU' us''af  tte  subjects  of  his  lectures,  mathematics 
Bhvslcs  logic,  metaphysics,  physical  geography,  a  critique  of  the 
S  of  the  Existence  of  God,  optimism,  fortification,  pyrotechnics, 
tropology,  encyclopedia  of  the  philosophical  sciences,  pedagogics. 
itlplSpby,  and  natural  theology.  Every  professor  in  ordinaiy 
rr  phi  osVw^^^  faculty  was  obliged  to  lecture  m  turn  on 
pedagogL,  whfch  accounts  for  Kanfs  lectures  on  this  subject. 

fs  xL'ug't'hfbe!!  most  eminent  as  a  metaphysician,  his 
mf.!phySlctares  were  never  the  most  POP'^I-.  not  -n  am^^^^^^ 
the  students.  They  were  very  dry  to  many  ;  and  -''^^y^}^'l 
four  years  after  Kant  began  his  lectures,  Hamann  wrote  that  U  vva^ 
difficult  to  follow  him.     Hamann's  works,  vol.  u.  p.  445.    Kant  knew 


456 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


very  well  that  his  lectures  were  difficult  for  beginners,  and  he  publicly 
advised  his  students  to  prepare  themselves  for  his  lectures  by  first 
hearing  those  of  Professor  Poerschke. 

59.  The  lectures  were  published  in  1798,  the  last  work  which  he 
himself  published.  Even  in  book  form  they  retained  their  popularity, 
and  the  fourth  edition  appeared  in  1833. 

40.  Altp.  M.,  xvi.  607. 

41.  Schubert,  41.  This  was  written  after  Kant  had  criticized 
one  of  Herder's  books,  and  there  was  already  some  alienation  between 
the  teacher  and  pupil. 

42.  "Herder's  Leben,"  von  Carolina  von  Herder,  60. 

43.  N.P.P.B.,  1848,  291. 

44.  The  subjects  on  which  he  lectured  after  he  became  professor 
were  :  logic,  metaphysics,  natural  law,  moral  philosophy,  natural 
theology,  physical  geography,  anthropology,  and  pedagogics. 

46.  "  Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Deutlichkeit  der  Grundsatze  der 
natiirlichen  Theologie  und  der  Moral.  Zur  Beantwortung  der 
Frage,  welche  die  Konigl.  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  zu  Berlin 
auf  das  Jahr  1763  aufgegeben  hat." 

47.  "  De  mundi  sensibilis  atque  intelligibilis  forma  et  principiis." 

48.  Dr.  W.  G.  Kelch,  "  Ueber  den  Schadel  Kant's,"  gives  the 
result  of  his  examination  of  the  head  immediately  after  death. 
When  the  remains  of  Kant  were  removed  to  the  Chapel  in  1880,  C. 
Kupffer  and  F.  Bessel  Hagan  examined  the  skull  with  the  most 
minute  care.  They  give  a  full  description  of  their  investigations  in 
"Archivfiir  Anthropologic,"  Braunschweig,  vol.  xiii.,  Aug.  1881, 
in  an  article  entitled,  "  Der  Schadel  Immanuel  Kant's.'* 

49.  Dr.  Bohn,  Altp.  M.,  vi.  611,  regards  this  as  a  light 
podagra. 

50.  Bouterwek ;  "  I.  Kant,"  48,  57. 

51.  "Von  einem  neuerdings  erhobenen  vornehmen  Ton  in  der 
Philosophic,"  1796. 

52.  "  Traume  eines  Geistersehers  erlautert  durch  Traume  der 
Metaphysik,"  1766. 

53.  While  his  "  Kritik  "  contains  many  evidences  of  his  analy t  ical 
powers,  and  of  nice  distinctions,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more 
striking  instance  than  in  his  "  Logic  "  where  he  follows  the  various 
steps  in  observation,  and  distinguishes  the  different  kinds  of  know- 
ledge. R.  and  S.  vol.  iii.  pp.  236,  237.  First  the  object  is 
represented  by  the  senses  ;  secondly,  it  is  represented  consciously, 
percipere  ;  thirdly,  it  is  compared  with  other  objects,  and  is  known, 
noscere ;  fourthly,  it  is  known  consciously,  cognoscere :  noscere  applied 


APPENDIX. 


457 


I 


to  animals  also,  cognoscere,  only  to  man;  fifthly,  to  understand  a  thing, 
intelligere  ;  sixthly,  to  get  an  insight  into  things  by  means  of  reason, 
perspicere;  seventhly,  to  comprehend  a  thing,  to  understand  it 
a  priori,  comprehendere. 

54.  SchlichtegroU's  "  Nekrologie,"  1797,  vol.  i.  p.  286. 

55.  Hamann  to  Jacobi,  Sept.  22,  1785. 

56.  Hamann,  Nov.  20,  1785. 

57.  On  Kant's  political  views,  see  an  article  by  Schubert,  in 
Raumer's  "  Histor.  Taschenbuch,"  vol.  ix.  In  1795,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  recognition  of  the  French  Republic  by  some  of  the  European 
powers,  Kant  published  his  pamphlet  on  "Eternal  Peace."  The 
edition  of  1500  copies  was  exhausted  in  two  weeks. 

58.  One  of  these  on  Dr.  Lilienthal,  Professor  of  Theology,  who 
died  March  17,  1782,  is  as  follows  :— 

"  Was  auf  das  Leben  folgt,  deckt  tiefe  Finsterniss; 
Was  uns  zu  thun  gebuhrt,  des  sind  wir  nur  gewiss. 
Dem  kann,  wie  Lilienthal,  kein  Tod  die  Hoffnung  rauben, 
Der  glaubt,  um  recht  zu  thun,  recht  thut,  um  froh  zu  glauben." 

59.  Bouterwek,  pp.  20—22. 

60.  "  Versuch  iiber  die  Krankheiten  des  Kopfes,"  1764. 

61.  N.P.P.B.  vi.  p.  13.      Rink,  p.  137. 

62.  Herbart,  in  "  I.  Kant's  Gedaechtnissfeyer  zu  Konigsberg  am 

22  April,  1810." 

63.  "  Hamburger  Correspondent,"  March  7,  1804.  Schubert,  141. 

64.  Altp.  M.  xvi.  612.     The  account  was  written  in  1795. 

65.  One  friend  says,  "  He  read  unusually  much,  especially  physical, 
historical  and  anthropological  writings  ;  most  of  all,  accounts  of 
travel."  Another  says,  "  He  liked  accounts  of  travel  best  of  all. 
He  seldom  read  philosophical  books,  not  even  those  written  for  or 
against  him."  Reicke,  15, 16.  "Men,  people,  natural  history,  physics, 
mathematics,  and  observation  were  the  sources  whence  he  drew  the 
materials  for  his  lectures  and  conversations."  Do.  17. 

66.  Reicke,  56. 

67.  Adamson,  "Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Kant,"  25. 

68.  Hasse,  7 — 9. 

69.  Jachmann,  174,  mentions  another  strange  fact.  Kant  was 
very  fond  of  snuff ;  but  at  times  there  was  so  little  moisture  in  his 
body  that  he  could  not  take  it.  Thinking  that  more  moisture  was 
necessary  for  his  system,  he  would  drink  a  quantity  of  water  daily 
in  order  to  supply  it.  In  his  study  he  would  keep  his  handkerchief 
lying  on  a  chair  in  order  that  he  might  occasionally  be  obliged  to 
get  up. 


f 


458 


TBE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


70.  N.P.P.B.,  iv.  22.  Heine  also  speaks  of  Kant's  merciless, 
sharp,  unpoetical,  cold  honesty,  and  draws  a  parallel  between  him 
and  Robespierre.  "  We  find  in  both  the  same  talent  for  suspicion, 
the  difference  being  that  one  uses  it  against  thought  and  calls  it 
criticism,  while  the  other  uses  it  against  men  and  calls  it  republican 
virtue.  In  both  we  find  the  type  of  the  Philister  in  the  highest 
degree — nature  had  designed  them  to  weigh  coffee  and  sugar,  but 
destiny  wanted  them  to  weigh  other  things,  and  placed  on  the  scales 
of  one  a  king,  and  on  the  scales  of  the  other  God  ....  And  they 
gave  the  correct  weight."  Of  course  a  frivolous  spirit  like  Heine 
could  not  appreciate  Kant.     What  would  Kant  have  said  of  Heine! 

71.  N.P.P.B.,  vi.  9.  This  strange  occurrence  ledHippel,  a  friend 
of  both,  to  write  a  short  comedy,  entitled,  "  Der  Mann  nach  der 
Uhr  Oder  der  ordentliche  Mann." 

72.  Altp.  M.,  xvi.  608.  The  count  speaks  of  his  face  as  having 
something  lively,  fine,  and  friendly  about  the  mouth,  which  cannot 
be  reproduced  in  a  hard  copperplate.  Of  his  reception  he  says, 
'*He  received  me  cordially,  said  much,  naturally  talked  most  of 
trifles,  joked  very  wittily,  and  made  some  quite  original  remarks 
about  fanaticism,  and  especially  about  learned  ladies  and  their 
diseases." 

73.  He  had  become  so  accustomed  to  guests  that  it  seemed  at  last 
as  if  he  could  not  get  along  without  them.  Hasse,  .50,  relates  that  at 
one  time  he  w^as  obliged  to  eat  his  dinner  alone  ;  but  it  was  so  painful 
to  him  that  he  wanted  his  servant  to  go  into  the  street  and  bring  to 
him  whomsoever  he  might  find,  as  he  must  have  company. 

74.  In  his  "  Anthropology  "  he  says,  "  If  a  young,  inexperienced 
man  enters  a  company  (especially  where  ladies  are  present)  surpass- 
ing in  brilliancy  his  expectations,  he  is  easily  embarrassed  when  he 
is  to  begin  to  speak.  Now,  it  would  be  awkward  to  begin  with  an 
item  of  news  reported  in  the  paper,  for  one  does  not  see  what  led 
him  to  speak  of  that.  But  as  he  has  just  come  from  the  street,  the 
bad  weather  is  the  best  introduction  to  conversation."  He  several 
times  says  essentially  the  same  thing,  a  kind  of  repetition  of  which 
there  are  other  examples  in  his  works. 

75.  "  Kant's  Werke,"  Rosenkranz  und  Schubert,  vol.  iv.,  Preface. 
Kant  had  a  copy  of  the  book  so  bound  that  every  alternate  leaf 
was  blank.  The  pages  of  these  blank  leaves,  and  in  many  instances 
also  the  margins  of  the  printed  pages,  were  covered  with  closely 
written  notes. 

76.  N.P.P.B.,  vi.  291. 

77.  Jahrbiicher  d.  Preuss.  Monarchic,  1799,  194. 


APPENDIX. 


459 


78.  Jachmann,  101.  Borowski  says,  "  I  never  saw  him  with  his 
relatives,  his  brother  only  excepted." 

79.  Wasianski  says  that  Kant  did  not  like  to  see  his  relatives 
about  him,  not  because  he  was  ashamed  of  them,  but  because  he 
could  not  converse  with  them  to  his  satisfaction.  But  Hasse,  39, 
and  Billiger  Verehrer,  17,  give  a  less  favourable  view.  It  is 
repeatedly  stated  that  his  higher  education  separated  Kant  from  his 
relatives  ;  and  it  is  evident  that  he  did  not  want  to  associate  with 
them,  whatever  his  reasons  may  have  been. 

80.  In  his  "  Anthropology  "  he  says,  "  As  far  as  learned  women 
are  concerned,  they  use  their  books  somewhat  like  their  watches, 
namely,  to  carry  them  in  order  that  it  may  be  seen  that  they  possess 
them,  though  their  time-pieces  generally  stand  still  or  are  not  regu- 

lated  by  the  sun." 

81.  Even  now  similar  opinions  are  common  in  Germany,  and 
may  be  heard  in  cultivated  society.  In  1877  an  address  was 
delivered  before  the  Kant  Society  in  Konigsberg,  on  Kant's  views 
of  woman,  and  the  speaker  declared  them  to  be  his  own  convictions 
concerning  woman's  culture  and  mission,  and  he  thought  it  to  be 
specially  important  to  make  them  known  at  this  time,  when  the 
influences,  especially  from  Russia  and  America,  tend  to  break  through 
the  limits  fixed  by  nature  for  woman's  intellectual  attainments.  The 
address  is  published  in  Altp.  M.  xiv.  593. 

82.  Borowski,  149.  ,    .  t^     . 
83    Rosenkranz  (Kant's  Works,  vol.  xii.  p.  269)  says  that  Kant 

has  frequently  and  bitterly  been  charged  with  degrading  marriage, 
since  he  makes  its  essence  to  consist  in  the  sexual  relation  of  husband 
and  wife.  He  pronounces  Kant's  views  "  barbarous,"  and  says  that 
it  may  be  regarded  as  an  apology  that  Kant,  as  a  bachelor,  could 
have  no  experience  of  the  depth  and  intimacy  of  the  marriage  rela- 
tion. His  views  of  marriage  are  found  in  his  "  Rechtslehre,"  his 
"  Anthropologic,"  and  his  book  on  "  The  Emotion  of  the  Beautiful 

and  Sublime." 

84.    **  Ich  selbsten,  mit  Erlaub  zu  sagen, 
Ich  selbsten  habe  keine  Frau." 
85.  "Die  Regel  bleibt:  Man  muss  nicht  freien, 
Doch  excipe,  solch  wuerdig  Paar." 

86  Reicke,  12.  Altp.  M.  xvi.  608.  This  lady  afterwards  mar- 
tied,  and  she  frequently  boasted  that  Kant  had  been  in  love  with  her. 
She  was  twenty-two  years  younger  than  Kant 

87  N  P.P.B.  vi.  15. 

88.  Jachmann,    77—82,    makes  the    conversation  refer    to    the 


460 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


t' 


a 


American  Revolution.  But  Kant  and  Green  were  acquainted  long 
before  that  time,  and  as  early  as  1770  Hamann  dedicated  a  trans- 
lation to  Green,  speaking  of  him  as  "the  friend  of  our  Kant." 
Schubert,  53.  Jachmann's  account  must  therefore  refer  to  some 
other  circumstance  than  that  revolution. 

89.  N.P.P.B.,  1853,  165.  The  article  is  on  Immanuel  Kant  and 
George  Hamann. 

90.  Scheffner  wanted  him  to  explain  some  parts  of  his  writings  ; 
but  Hamann  answered  that  this  was  impossible,  since  much  which 
he  had  taken  into  the  account  while  writing  had  escaped  his  memory. 
**  Life  of  Scheffner,"  207.  He  himself  admitted  that  he  could  not 
master  systems,  and  says  that  it  was  his  province  to  deal  with 
"crumbs,  fragments,  whims,  and  notions.'*  Letter  to  Lindner, 
October  12th,  1759.  In  this  letter  he  speaks  of  Kant  as  the  little 
magister  whom  he  loved  and  esteemed  very  much,  and  already  at 
that  time  he  calls  him  "  the  little  Socrates." 

91.  Schlichtegroll,  1801,  i.  303.  Another  writer  says,  "  Hippel's 
life  and  character  were  full  of  peculiarities  and  contradictions.  With 
a  clear,  enlightened  mind,  he  manifested  a  spirit  of  fanaticism  and  an 
inclination  to  superstition ;  with  strong  passion  and  sensuousness,  he 
had  a  devotion  bordering  on  bigotry  and  an  ardent  zeal  for  virtue  ; 
he  cherished  a  friendship  which  was  almost  enthusiastic,  and  yet 
was  reticent  towards  his  friends  ;  he  was  imperious  and  severe,  and 
yet,  at  the  same  time,  cheerful  and  refined  ;  he  was  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  of  nature  and  simplicity,  and  yet  was  inclined  to  etiquette 
and  to  avarice  ;  he  appreciated  the  excellencies  of  woman  in  general, 
and  also  the  marriage  relation,  and  yet  he  had  a  decided  antipathy 
to  wedlock  ;  his  moral  principles  were  disinterested,  and  yet  in  his 
conduct  he  manifested  the  most  striking  egotism.  Brockhaus'  "Con- 
versations-Lexicon," article  Hippel. 

92.  "  Das  Leben  des  Prof  C.  J.  Krauss,"  von  J.  Voigt,  27. 

93.  There  are  more  books  on  philosophical  than  on  other  subjects. 
In  all  there  are  about  seventy  or  eighty  writings  of  Kant,  of  which 
very  many  are  short  dissertations,  reviews,  or  newspaper  articles. 
In  Hartenstein's  edition  of  Kant's  works,  there  are  eight  large 
volumes  ;  in  Rosenkranz  and  Schubert's,  ten  are  devoted  to  his  works, 
one  to  his  letters  and  life,  and  one  to  an  account  of  his  philosophy. 
In  Kirchmann's  edition  there  are  eight  volumes,  with  one  supple- 
mentary volume. 

94.  This  is  true,  at  least,  as  far  as  the  great  results  of  that 
philosophy  are  concerned.  In  his  second  edition  of  the  "  Kritik," 
Kant  made  many  changes ;  but  he  claimed  that  they  pertained  only 


APPENDIX. 


461 


. 


to  the  style  and  the  argument,  not  to  the  thought.  But  Schopenhauer 
claimed  that  Kant  had  also  changed  the  thought  materially,  that  he  had 
done  this  intentionally,  cowardly,  and  dishonestly.  As  to  the  exact 
nature  of  the  changes  the  commentators  differ,  some  claiming  that  the 
declaration  of  Kant  is  correct;  others,  however,  as  stoutly  asserting 
that  the  substance  of  the  first  edition  is  materially  changed  in  the 
second,  of  which  the  following  were  all  a  reprint.  The  whole  subject 
is  discussed  by  Benno  Erdmann,  in  his  "  Kant's  Kriticismus."  It  is 
the  second  edition  which  has  made  the  greatest  impression  on 
literature,  and  is  generally  cited.  Recent  editions  of  the  "Kritik" 
usually  give  Kant's  second  edition,  Hartenstein  and  Benno  Erdmann 
at  the  same  time  indicating  its  variations  from  the  first.  Rosenkranz, 
however,  gives  the  first  edition. 

95.  *'  He  had  his  plan,  wrote  his  book,  made  a  cheap  contract 
with  his  publisher,  and  then  quietly  awaited  the  result,  though,  as 
his  replies  indicate,  he  was  by  no  means  indifierent  to  reviews." 
Mundt's  "  Dioskuren,"  vol.  ii.  p.  24. 

96.  "  Berlinische  Monatsschrift,"  1804,  279. 

97.  Descartes  repeatedly  speaks  of  God  as  "  Substantia  infinita." 
He  distinguishes  God  as  the  infinite  Substance,  whose  cause  is  in 
Himself,  from  all  other  substances,  which  are  finite  and  are  caused  by 
God.  The  latter  substances  are  of  two  kinds,  matter,  whose  essence 
is  extensive,  and  spirit,  whose  essence  is  thought.  Spinoza's 
pantheism  is  based  on  the  idea  of  God  as  substance.  But  this  view 
seems  to  have  had  no  influence  on  Kant. 

98.  Descartes  held  that  there  are  three  sources  of  ideas:  some  are 
innate,  others  come  from  the  objects  they  represent,  and  others  are 
fictions  which  the  mind  itself  produces. 

99.  Kuno  Fischer  (iii.  169),  speaking  of  Kant's  writings  during 
the  first  decade  of  his  authorship,  says,  "  Kant  is  evidently  more 
inclined  to  oppose  Leibnitz  than  Newton.  He  places  himself  on  the 
standpoint  of  the  English  natural  philosophy,  passes  from  this  to 
the  English  philosophy  of  experience,  which  established  the  princi- 
ples according  to  which  Newton  had  projected  his  system:  he  went 
from  Newton  to  Locke  and  Hume." 

100  Newton's  indirect  influence  on  the  "  Kritik  "  must  be  regarded 
as  a  potent  factor.  Professor  A.  Riehl,  in  his  book,  "  Der  Philoso- 
phische  Kriticismus,"  thinks  that  the  spirit  and  the  method  of  the 
mathematical  natural  sciences  were  the  patterns  according  to  which 
Kant's  method  was  formed.  He  holds  that  Newton  s  natural 
philosophy  was  as  powerful  as  Hume's  scepticism  in  determining  the 
character  of  Kant's  "  Kritik,"  and  says, "  I  believe  that  I  can  show  that 


w 


11 


462 


THE    LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL   KANT. 


the  natural  philosophy  of  Newton  had  no  less  an  influence  on  the 
origin  of  the  Critical  Philosophy  of  Kant  than  Hume  himself"  It  would 
perhaps  be  more  correct  to  say  that  Newton's  influence  was  directed 
chiefly  to  the  formation  of  his  method  of  thinking,  while  Hume  gave 
the  direct  impulse  which  led  to  the  development  of  the  "Kritik." 

101.  We  cannot  tell  exactly  when  Kant  was  aroused  from  his  dog- 
matic slumber  by  Hume,  but  it  was  probably  not  many  years  after 
he  became  tutor  in  the  university.  Fischer  thinks  it  must  have 
been  about  1760.  iii.  178.  In  1759  Hamann  wrote  a  letter  to  Kant, 
in  which  he  speaks  of  "  the  Attic  philosopher  Hume  who,  in  spite 
of  all  his  errors,  is  a  Saul  among  the  prophets."  It  was  about  this 
time,  also,  that  Kant  spoke  of  Hume  in  his  lectures. 

102.  "Versuch  den  Begriff*  der  negativen  Grrosse  in  die  Welt- 
weisheit  einzufiihren." 

103.  "  Der  einzig  mogliche  Beweisgrund  zu  einer  Demonstration 
fiir  das  Dasein  Gottes." 

104.  Tieftrunk,  in  his  Preface  to  the  edition  of  Kant's  smaller 
works,  says,  "  Men  were  accustomed  to  give  an  account  only  of 
what  was  contained  in  their  conceptions."  Kant  then  put  the  ques- 
tion, whether  these  are  conceptions  of  real  objects,  or  whether  they 
are  mere  fictions  of  the  mind  ? 

105.  "  Dorptsche  Beitrage,"  iii.  102.  The  letters  are  written  from 
Zurich.  He  asks  Kant,  whether  in  his  "Kritik  "  he  is  going  to  say 
that  the  present  criticism  could  hardly  be  more  remote  than  it  is 
from  the  critique  of  pure  reason;  also,  whether  he  will  say  "  that  all 
our  wisdom  is  folly  until  we  fix  all  our  observations  more  on  man  ; 
that  we  constantly  err  so  greatly  because  we  seek  outside  of  ourselves 
what  is  within  us  ;  that  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  understand  the 
inner  nature  of  a  thing,  and  that  we  can  understand  only  the  relation 
of  objects  to  our  needs;  and  that  all  occupations,  writings,  medita- 
tions, reading,  are  folly  and  childishness  unless  they  are  definite 
means  for  satisfying  human  needs  ?  "  These  letters  are  an  evidence 
that  Kant  was  already  known  beyond  the  borders  of  Germany  years 
before  the  "  Kritik  "  appeared. 

106.  The  first  work  mentioned  was  never  published  by  Kant,  the 
thoughts  he  intended  to  give  in  it  were  probably  developed  and  em- 
bodied in  the  "  Kritik."  A  man  who  had  heard  that  Kant  intended 
to  write  on  this  subject,  changed  it  a  little  and  published  a  work  on 
it.  A  book  on  the  second  subject  appeared  twenty  years  after  he 
wrote  this  letter.  Under  the  third  title  he  published  nothing,  but 
the  thoughts  intended  to  be  given  under  that  head  probably  appeared 
in  his  "  Critique  of  the  Practical  Reason,"  or  in  his  other  moral  works. 


APPENDIX. 


463 


107.  Already  in  1762  Kant  spoke  of  the  understanding  as  the 
logical  faculty,  or  the  faculty  for  knowing,  in  his  book,  "  Die  falsche 
Spitzfindigkeit  der  vier  syllogistischen  Figuren." 

108.  **  Philosophia  autem  prima  continens  principia  usus  intellec- 
tus  puri  est  metaphysica." 

109.  "  Von  dem  ersten  Grunde  des  Unterschiedes  der  Gegenden 

im  Raume."  1768. 

110.  "Tempus     itaque  est  principium  formale  Mundi   sensibilis 

absolute  primum." 

111.  Conceptus  spatii  est  singularis  representatio  omnia  in  se  com- 
prehendens,  non  sub  se  continens  notio  abstracta  et  communis.' 

112.  "  Spatium  itaque  est  principium  formale  Mundi  sensibilis 
absolute  primum." 

113.  "Sed  ab  ipsa  mentis  actione,  secundum  perpetuas  leges 
sensa  sua  coordinante,  quasi   typus  immutabilis,  ideoque  intuitive 

cognoscendus." 

114.  Writing  to  Herder,  Sept.  15th,  1781,  he  calls  the  "Kritik" 
"  Sancho  Panza's  transcendental  philosophy." 

115.  A  Latin  translation  of  the  "  Kritik  "  was  made,  and  Kant 
complained  that  he  could  not  understand  it.  Hamann  glories  in 
this  fact,  and  says,  **  It  serves  the  author  right  to  experience  the 
difficulty  of  his  readers. 

116.  His  aim  in  the  "  Kritik  "  was  to  make  the  book  very  com- 
prehensive, and  he  says  in  the  Preface  to  the  first  edition,  "  I  venture 
to  say  that  there  is  not  a  single  metaphysical  problem  which  is  not 
solved  here,  or  for  whose  solution  at  least  the  key  is  not  given." 

117.  Kant  thinks  that  the  very  existence  of  metaphysics  depends 
on  the  answer  to  this  question,  and  in  his  "Prolegomena"  he  says, 
"  All  metaphysicians  are  therefore  solemnly  and  legally  suspended 
from  their  occupations  until  they  have  satisfactorily  answered  this 
question  :  How  are  synthetic  judgments  a  priori  possible  ?  " 

118.  He  says  that  without  sensation  no  object  would  be  given, 
and  without  the  understanding  none  would  be  thought.  "  Thoughts 
without  content  are  empty;  perceptions  without  conceptions  are 
blind."  "  The  understanding  perceives  nothing,  the  senses  think 
nothing.  Knowledge  can  only  arise  from  the  union  of  both.  Never- 
theless we  dare  not  for  this  reason  confound  their  functions,  but  we 
have  great  reason  to  separate  and  distinguish  each  carefully  from 
the  other.  Therefore  we  distinguish  the  science  of  the  rules  of  sensa- 
tion in  general,  that  is,  aesthetics,  from  the  science  of  the  rules  of  the 
understanding  in  general,  that  is,  logic." 

119.  Kant  calls  this  "  Gemeinschaft  (Wechselwirkung  zwischen 


APPENDIX. 


465 


464 


THE   LIFE   OP   IMMANUEL   KANT, 


!• 


a: 


t 


dem  Handelnden  und  Leidenden)."  The  difficulty  Kant  experienced 
with  the  categories  is  evident  fram  his  statement  in  the  Preface  that 
they  cost  him  the  most  trouble. 

120.  "The  question  respecting  transcendental  freedom  per- 
tains only  to  speculative  knowledge,  which  we  can  set  aside  as 
altogether  a  matter  of  indifference  when  we  are  concerned  about  the 
practical."  Rosenkranz  says  that  he  not  merely  laid  the  greatest 
stress  on  the  practical  element  in  his  speculation,  but  he  even  under- 
took to  root  out  metaphysics.     N.P.P.B.,  iv.  13. 

121.  "  Prolegomena  zu  einer  jeden  kiinftigen  Metaphysik,  die  als 
Wissenschaft  wird  auftreten  konnen."  It  is  the  first  book  he  pub- 
lished after  the  "  Kritik."  As  it  popularizes  the  main  thoughts  of 
that  book,  it  should  be  read  before  the  "  Kritik,"  since  it  will  greatly 
facilitate  the  understanding  of  that  difficult  work. 

122  "  Kritik  der  Urtheilskraft,"  1790.  His  definition  of  judgment 
is,  *'  Urtheilskraft  uberhaupt  ist  das  Vermogen,  das  Besondere  als 
enthalten  unter  dem  Allgemeinen  zu  denken." 

123  Kant  says  respecting  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  agreeable, 
the  beautiful,  and  the  good,  "  It  may  be  said  of  these  three  kinds 
of  pleasure,  that  the  taste  for  the  beautiful  is  alone  an  uninterested 
and  free  pleasure.  For  no  interest,^^neither  that  of  the  senses  nor 
that  of  the  reason,  compels  approval.'*  ,  ^q.    xr     f 

124  Hasse,  22.  In  a  letter  to  Professor  Schutz,  1785,  Kant 
already  speaks  of  "  The  Metaphysic  of  Nature,"  and  says  that  the 
«  Metaphysical  Principles  of  Natural  Science  "-a  book  completed 
that  summer— is  a  preparation  for  that  work. 

125.  This  is  published  in  Altp.  M.,  i.  742. 

126.  His  principal  works  on  morals  and  religion  followed  his 
«  Kritik,"  and  were  based  on  its  conclusions.  On  morals  his  most 
important  works  are,  "  Grundlegung  zur  Metaphysik  der  Sitten," 
1785;  "  Kritik  der  praktischen  Vernunft,"  1788;  "  Die  Metaphysik 
der  Sitten,"  1797,  in  two  parts,  of  which  the  first  discusses  the 
metaphysical  principles  of  jurisprudence,  and  the  second,  the  meta- 
physical principles  of  virtue.  His  principal  work  on  religion  is, 
"Die  Religion  innerhalb  der  Grenzen  der  blossen  Vernunft,"  1793; 
the  last  book  he  published  also  treats  of  religious  subjects,  but,  as  a 
rule  merely  repeats  the  views  given  in  the  other  book.  The  title  of 
his  last  book  is,  "Der  Streit  der  Facultaten,"  1798.  In  many  of 
his  other  works  moral  and  religious  subjects  are  also  discussed. 

In  the  first  book  on  morals  he  discusses  the  highest  principles  of 
morality,  namely,  the  Categorical  Imperative.  As  the  "  Kritik  "  is 
the  propaedeutics  to  all  philosophy,  so  the  second  book  on  morals,  the 


**  Critique  of  the  Practical  Reason,"  is  the  propaedeutics  to  all  moral 
philosophy,  and  it  discusses  the  problem  of  the  freedom  of  the  will. 
The  third  book  discusses  the  principles  of  morality  in  general,  and 
contains  the  system. 

127.  The  question  asked  by  the  speculative  reason  is.  What  can 
I  know?  That  asked  by  the  practical  reason  is.  What  ought  I  to  do? 
In  his  "Logic"  (Rosenkranz  and  Schubert,  iii.  186),  he,  however, 
says  that  philosophy  deals  with  four  questions,  namely,  What  can  I 
know  ?  What  ought  I  to  do  ?  What  may  I  hope  ?  What  is  man  ? 
"  The  first  question  is  answered  by  metaphysics ;  the  second  by 
morality;  the  third  by  religion ;  the  fourth  by  anthropology. 
Really,  however,  all  this  might  be  treated  under  anthropology,  since 
the  first  three  questions  are  all  related  to  the  last." 

128.  "  Es  ist  iiberall  nichts  in  der  Welt,  ja  uberhaupt  ausser  der- 
selben  zu  denkeu  moglich,  was  ohne  Einschrankung  fiir  gut  konnte 
gehalten  werden,  alsallein  ein  guter  Wille."  The  will,  according  to 
Kant,  is  the  character.  It  is  not  to  be  judged  by  what  it  accom- 
plishes, but  by  itself,  by  its  volitions.  Man  is  a  lawgiver  unto  him- 
self, and  his  own  being  imposes  obligations  upon  him.  He  is  his 
own  authority,  and  prescribes  his  own  rules  of  conduct. 

129.  Bouterwek,  117,  says,  "Let  it  be  remembered  that  no  so- 
called  feeling-philosophy  found  an  entrance  into  Kant's  cold  under- 
standing, and  that  all  sentimentality,  even  the  noblest,  was  disagree- 
able to  him."  Rink,  99,  says  that  a  physician  wrote  to  Kant  in  1794 : 
"  My  dear  Professor  !  Mr.  Kant's  rational  faith  is  a  faith  entirely 
free  from  all  hope.  Mr.  Kant's  morality  is  a  morality  entirely  free  from 
all  love.  The  question  now  arises,  Wherein  does  Mr.  Kant's  faith 
differ  from  the  faith  of  devils  ?  And  in  what  respect  does  Mr.  Kant's 
morality  differ  from  the  morality  of  devils?  "  In  other  letters  the 
same  twitted  him  on  the  lack  of  the  emotional  element,  and  in  one 
he  says,  "  Animals  have  no  reason.  The  absence  of  reason  is  the 
cause  why  animals  cannot  rejoice  that  there  is  a  God,  and  that  God 
is  so  gracious  as  He  is.  But  it  is  a  mystery  to  me  what  the  cause  can 
be  that  my  rational  brother,  Immanuel  Kant,  cannoty  or  will  not,  rejoice, 
just  as  well  as  I  do,  that  God  is  as  gracious  as  He  is." 

i30a.  Kant  states  this  celebrated  law  repeatedly  and  in  different 
language,  but  its  essence  is  always  as  given  in  the  text.  "  Ich  soil 
niemals  anders  verfahren,  als  so,  das  sich  auch  woUen  konne,  meine 
Maxime  solle  ein  allgemeines  Gesetz  werden."  "  Handle  so,  als  ob 
die  Maxime  deiner  Handlung  durch  deinen  Willen  zum  allgemeinen 
Naturgesetze  werden  sollte." 

130?/.  For  the  relief  of  constipation  a  physician  advised  him  to 

H  h 


!i! 


I  i 


?l 


460 


THE    LIFE    OP    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


take  a  pill  daily.  After  awhile  he  found  that  this  was  not  enough,  and 
another  physician  advised  him  to  take  two.  But  Kant,  reflecting  on 
the  matter,  concluded  that  the  increase  might  go  on  indefinitely,  and 
therefore  resolved  never  in  his  life  to  take  more  than  two  pills  a  day, 
a  rule  which  he  could  not  be  induced  to  break,  except  perhaps  in 
old  age,  when  he  was  feeble  and  yielded  to  the  advice  of  others. 

131.  "  The  Emotion  of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime."  Rosen- 
kranz  and  Schubert,  iv.  431.  On  a  blank  leaf  of  this  book,  Kant 
wrote:  ''It  is  not  necessary  to  sympathize  with  others  in  natural 
misfortune,  but  it  is  necessary  to  sympathize  with  them  when 
suifering  from  injustice."     Rosenkranz  and  Schubert,  xi.  1,  221. 

132.  InN.P.P.B.,  1848,  14,  it  is  said,  "In  his  last  years  his 
conscience  troubled  him,  because  at  one  time,  in  order  to  decline  a 
disagreeable  invitation,  he  pretended  to  be  already  invited  for  the 

time  designated." 

133.  Hippel  (Schlichtegroll's  "  Nekrologie,"  1797,  vol.  i.  p.  281) 
says,  *'  Kant  often  says  that  if  a  man  were  to  say  and  write  all  he 
thinks,  there  would  be  nothing  more  horrible  on  God's  earth  than 
man."  In  a  letter  to  Mendelssohn,  April  8th,  1766,  Kant  wrote, 
"  Much  that  I,  indeed,  think  with  the  clearest  conviction  and  to  my 
great  gatisfaction,  I  shall  never  have  the  courage  to  say ;  but  I  shall 
never  say  anything  that  I  do  not  think." 

134.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  dedication  in  which  there  is  a 
more  diffuse  use  of  complimentary  terms  than  that  of  Kant's  first 
book.  Dr.  Bohlius  was  a  friend  of  the  family,  and  seems  to  have 
shown  them,  and  particularly  Kant,  some  kindness.  To  him  the 
book  is  dedicated,  and  he  is  addressed  :  "  Hochedelgeborener  Herr, 
hochgelahrter  und  hocherfahrner  Doctor,  insonders  hochzuehrender 
Gonner  !  "  In  the  brief  dedication  of  less  than  a  page  the  dedicatee 
is  five  times  addressed  "  hochedelgeborner."  The  close  of  the 
dedication  declares  that  Kant  remains,  with  constant  high  esteem, 
**  Hochedelgeborener,  hochgelahrter  und  hocherfahrner  Herr  Doctor, 
insonders    hochzuehrender   Gonner,    Ew.    Hochedelgebornen    ver- 

pflichtester  Diener.     Immanuel  Kant." 

135.  Before  his  "  Kritik  "  appeared  Kant  used  various  arguments 

to  prove  God's  existence.  In  his  Cosmology,  1755,  he  uses  the 
argument  from  design  and  says,  "  If  one  does  not  wilfully  oppose  all 
conviction,  he  must  be  convinced  by  such  irresistible  reasons."  In 
1763  he  used  the  ontological  argument  in  "  Der  einzig  mogliche 
Beweisgrund  zu  einer  Demonstration  fiir  das  Dasein  Gottes."  In 
his  Inaugural  Address,  1770,  he  argues  in  favour  of  God's  existence 
from  the  unity  in  nature,  and   ho   says   that   his  view  is  not  very 


APPENDIX. 


467 


^ill 


different  from  that  of  Malebranche,  namely  that  "  we  see  all  things 
in  God." 

With  his  "  Kritik  "  he  ends  all  speculative  proofs  of  the  divine 
existence.  But  it  should  be  remembered  what  he  said  in  1766  in 
his  Traiime  ;  "  Common  sense  often  sees  the  truth  sooner  than  it 
understands  the  reasons  by  means  of  which  it  can  prove  or  explain 
it."  And  at  another  time  he  said,  "  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
be  convinced  of  the  existence  of  God;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to 
demonstrate  it." 

136.  How  purely  he  makes  religion  rational  is  evident  from  his 
definition  of  religious  faith  in  his  *'  Streit  der  Fakultaten,"  287. 
Religious  faith  is  "  one  which  can  be  developed  from  each  person's 
reason."  Not  the  ideal  reason  of  humanity,  nor  the  divine  reason, 
but  the  reason  of  each  individual  is  thus  made  the  source  of  his 
religion,  and  is  treated  as  if  absolute.  Page  290  he  says  that  reli- 
gion can  be  an  object  of  reason  only,  and  that  all  the  principles  of 
religion  must  be  dictated  by  reason.  And  299  he  says,  "  For 
ecclesiastical  faith  historic  learning  is  necessary  ;  for  religious 
faith  only  reason."  Reason,  as  the  sole  arbiter  in  all  things, 
was  the  watchword  of  Kant,  as  well  as  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived. 

137.  In  "Was  ist  Aufklarung  ? ''  published  in  1784,  he  says  that 
Auf  klarung  or  enlightenment  is  the  departure  of  man  from  the  state 
of  immaturity  for  which  he  is  himself  to  blame.  This  immaturity 
is  inability  to  use  one's  understanding  without  the  guidance  of 
another."  "  The  motto  of  enlightenment  is,  '^  Have  the  courage  to 
use  your  own  understanding."  Laziness  and  cowardice  are  the 
causes  why  men  who  should  be  independent  in  thought  still  remain 
dependent,  a  fact  which  makes  it  so  easy  for  others  to  be  their 
leaders.  "  It  is  so  comfortable  to  remain  dependent.  If  I  have  a 
book  which  thinks  for  me,  a  pastor  who  is  my  conscience  for  me, 
a  physician  who  chooses  my  diet,  et  cet.,  then  I  need  not  trouble 
myself."  Perfect  independence  is  Kant's  aim  in  religion  as  well  as 
in  thought:  independence  of  history,  of  the  Church,  and,  in  fact,  of 
everything  except  reason. 

138.  This  conclusion  is  drawn  from  a  careful  study  of  all  his 
religious  views,  and  others  have  been  forced  to  the  same  conclusion. 
Rosenkranz  says,  "  It  is  true  that  Kant  fell  into  the  one-sidedness 
of  absorbing  religion  in  morality."  "Kant's  Werke,"  xii.  202.  And 
he  also  says,  **If  now  religion  is  entirely  absorbed  by  morality, 
then  the  relation  of  man  to  God  as  a  personal  Being  ceases.  He 
may   believe   in    God  ;  morality  does  not  forbid  this.      But   it  is 

a  H  2 


468 


THE   LIFE   OF   IMMANUEL   KANT, 


I 


superfluous.  It  is  not  necessary.  Conscience  is  his  God.  The 
most  essential  thing  is  the  conception  of  the  highest  good,  of  the 
categorical  imperative,  of  the  maxim,"  253.  Even  Feuerbach's 
view  finds  a  basis  in  «  Religion,"  257,  note,  where  it  is  declared  that 
each  man  makes  himself  a  God  and  must  do  so.  In  his  "  Kritik 
he  first  destroys  all  hope  of  a  speculative  proof  of  the  existence  of 
God  ;  then,  after  he  postulates  His  existence,  he  destroys  the  specu- 
lative use  of  that  existence  ;  and  even  practically  He  is  only  of 
secondary  significance.  That  God  is  a  person  and  sustains  personal 
relations  to  man,  is  not  made  practically  real. 

139.  Less  than  a  year  before  his  death  he  said,  "Were  not  the 
Bible  already  written,  it  would  probably  not  be  written  any  more." 

Hasse,  27. 

140.  Such  declarations  are  simply  amazing,  especially  when  one 
reads  in  Exodus  xx.  as  part  of  the  commandments,  "  And  showing 
mercy  unto  thousands  of  them  that  love  me,  and  keep  my  command- 
ments.^^ 

141.  In  his  short  treatise,  "  Was  ist  Aufklarung  ?  "  1784. 

142.  It  is  only  necessary  to  develop  Kant's  hints  in  order  to  get 
the.views  of  Strauss  in  his  "  Leben  Jesu."  But  there  is  this  differ- 
ence,  that  Kant  uses  the  gospels  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  putting  or 
finding  moral  ideas  there,  while  Strauss  views  them  chiefly  as  the 
product  of  religious  ideas  ;  Kant  finds  moral  hints  there,  Strauss, 
myths  ;  Kant  is  more  purely  rational,  Strauss  wants  also  to  account 

for  the  history. 

143.  Without  having  formed  a  clear  conception  of  what  the  his- 
torical Christ  really  was,  Kant  sometimes  spoke  in  favourable  terms 
of  Him  as  if  he  regarded  Him  highly.  Owing  to  his  moral  philosophy, 
Kant  was  repeatedly  compared  with  Christ ;  but  this  he  himself  did 
not  favour,  declaring  that  in   comparison  with  Him  he  was  only 

a  bungler. 

144.  One  of  his  maxims  was,  "To  kneel  or  prostrate  himself 
on  the  earth,  even  for  the  purpose  of  symbolizing  to  himself  reve- 
rence for  a  heavenly  object,  is  unworthy  of  man." 

145.  In  1788-91  Kant  gave  his  friend  Kiesewetter  a  number 
of  small  articles,  from  which  this  extract  and  the  preceding  are 
taken.     R.  and  S.  xi.  1,  269. 

146.  Jachmann,  117,  says  that  if  ever  a  man's  religious  views 
were  cold  declarations  of  reason,  and  if  ever  any  one  excluded  all 
emotion  from  his  religious  acts,  this  was  so  in  Kant's  case. 

147.  Wald,  in  Beicke,  14.  The  same  says  that  Kant  did  not 
succeed  in  theology  "because  he   lacked   the   best   knowledge  of 


APPENDIX. 


469 


biblical  philology  and  criticism."  16.  Rink,  27,  also  speaks  of  his 
neglect  of  the  study  of  theology,  and  attributes  his  religious  views 
to  his  early  training,  the  character  of  his  mind,  and  his  lack  of 
philological  and  historical  knowledge. 

148.  Rink,  44,  45,  finds  it  difficult  to  explain  Kant's  conduct  in 
this  matter,  but  supposes  that  when  Kant  wrote  the  letter  he  had 
no  idea  he  would  outlive  the  kiug,  and  made  no  mental  reservation ; 
but  that,  when  the   king  died,  he  really  believed  that  he  had  made 
such    a    reservation    as    he    afterwards    declared    he     had   done. 
Borowski,   125,  126,  regards   this  case  as  an  exception  to  Kant's 
general  rule,  never  to  deviate  from  the  strict  truth.     If  Kant's  own 
statement  of  his  mental  reservation  is  correct,  then  the  explanation 
given   in    the  text    is   the    most    charitable    construction    possible. 
Some  have,  of  course,   justified  Kant's    conduct    in    this    matter. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  he  himself  held  that,  while  one  must 
always  speak  the  truth,  he  must  himself  be  a  judge  as  to  how  much 
of  what  he  knows  or  thinks  shall  be  said.     It  was  about  the  time 
he  made  the  promise  to  the  king  that  he  wrote  on  a  paper  found 
among  his  effects,    "  Recantation    and  denial  of  one's   convictions 
are  base ;  but  silence  in  a  case   like  the  present  is  the  duty  of  a 
subject  ;  and  if  all  one  says  must  be  true,  it  is  not  for  that  reason 
also  a  duty  to  speak  openly  all  truth.'*     Schubert,  138. 

149.  Rink  says  that  for  the  first  six  years  the  "  Kritik  "  excited 
no  attention ;  and  the  publisher  is  said  to  have  been  ready  to  consign 
the  first  edition  to  waste  paper — statements  which  are  hardly 
credible.  When  the  new  chapel  erected  to  Kant's  memory  was 
dedicated,  June  19,  1881,  Dr.  J.  Walter,  Professor  of  Philosophy 
in  Konigsberg,  delivered  an  address,  in  which  he  said  that  those 
who  criticized  the  work  during  the  first  two  years  after  its  appear- 
ance had  not  studied  the  book,  indeed  had  scarcely  read  it;  that 
the  third  year  more  voices  against  it  were  heard,  such  as  Eberhard 
in  Halle,  Platner  in  Leipzig,  Tiedemann  in  Marburg,  Lossius  and 
others ;  and  that  advocates  and  opponents  were  about  equal  in 
numbers  in  1786  and  1787,  after  which  the  former  gained  and 
the  latter  lost  strength.  About  the  year  1788  the  success  of  the 
"  Kritik "  was  established,  and  from  this  time  its  marvellous  in- 
fluence became  general. 

The  third  edition  of  the  "  Kritik  "  appeared  in  1791 ;  the  fourth,  in 
1794;  the  fifth,  in  1799;  the  sixth,  in  1818  ;  the  seventh,  in  1828, 
all  a  reprint  of  the  second  edition. 

150.  Raumer's  "  Historisch.  Taschenbuch,"  9,  557. 

151.  Nicolai,  "  Ueber  meine  Gelehrte  Bildung,"  76. 


470 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL   KANT. 


Ir 


152.  Their  author  was  Hieronymus  de  Bosch.     Either  the  same 

or  another  wrote  : — 

"Non  sic  Hugenii  memorent  inventa  Batavi, 
Nee  sic  Newtoni  veneretur  et  Anglia  nomen, 
Lavoisieri  referat  uec  Gallia  laudes, 
Doctrinam  quam  tota  tuam  German ia,  Kanti  ! " 

153.  These  lines  occur  : — 

"  Du  trugst  die  Fackel  bis  in  den  Grund 
Des  Denkvermogens,  und  die  Natur  erschrak, 
Als  tief  in  ihrer  finstern  Werkstatt 
Plotzlich  Dein  Licht  ihr  entgegenstrahlt.'* 
Most  of  these  facts  are  given  in  Altp.  M.  xv.  377,  in  an  article 
entitled  "  Verse  Kant's  und  iiber  Kant." 

154.  Letter  to  Erhard,  Nov.  10,  1795.  Found  in  "  Denkwurdig- 
keiten  des  Philosophen  und  Arztes  Johaun  Benjamin  Erhard."  By 
Varnhagen  von  Ense. 

155.  Borowski,  187.  In  closing  his  account  of  Kant's  life,  this 
writer  says,  *' Would  that  the  numerous  disciples,  readers,  and 
friends  of  Kant,  would  never  carry  to  excess  their  veneration  for 
him,  the  most  humane  and  the  most  modest  of  philosophers  !  " 

156.  Schiller's  words  were  intended  for  those  disciples  of  Kant 
who  were  mere  echoes  of  his  opinions  : — 

"  Wie  doch  ein  einziger  Reicher  eo  viele  Bettler  in  Nahrung 
Setzt  !     Wenn  die  Konige  baun  haben  die  Karrner  zu  thun." 

157.  Kant's  warmest  friends  deplored  the  abuses  of  his  philosophy 
and  his  name.  Erhard  wrote  to  Nicolai,  Dec.  13,  1798,  that  he 
and  Baggesen  had  years  ago  planned  a  satire  on  the  philosophical 
confusion.  The  title  was  to  have  been,  "  The  One  Thing  Needful, 
or  the  Council  of  Philosophers ;  a  Transcendental  Drama,"  Forty 
cotemporaries  had  been  chosen  as  the  characters  of  the  play,  and 
the  number  who  should  be  included  in  such  a  satire  had  greatly 
increased,  Erhard  thought,  when  he  wrote  that  letter.  Jensch 
wrote  to  Kant,  May  22,  1796,  that  he  had  written  a  work  on  the 
whole  of  his  philosophy,  and  desired  his  opinion  of  it.  He  appealed 
in  this  book  to  Kant  to  settle  the  disputes  of  his  pupils  as  to  what 
his  opinions  are,  by  declaring  authoritatively  his  views.  In  the 
letter  he  says,  "  I  have  made  so  free,  amid  the  vexatious  conten- 
tions of  your  other  pupils  and  partisans,  which  are  disagreeable  to 
all  Germany,  as  to  make  the  appeal  to  yourself  and  to  your  judgment, 
without  any  importunity." 

158.  In  a  literary  dispute,  Jacobi  hoped  that  Kant  would  take 
his  side.     Hamann  wrote  to  him,  April  9,  1786,  "Do  not  depend 


APPENDIX. 


471 


on  our  critic,  nor  need  you  do  so.  He  is,  like  his  system,  no 
rock,  but  sand,  in  which  one  soon  becomes  weary  of  going  farther. 
.  .  .  Do  not  let  Kant's  neutrality  disturb  you.  All  my  indebted- 
ness to  him  .  .  .  shall  not  keep  me  from  writing  as  I  think ;  I 
fear  for  myself  no  envy  or  ambition  respecting  his  fame.  I  have 
already  had  many  a  hard  conflict  with  him,  and  sometimes  have 
evidently  been  in  the  wrong  ;  nevertheless  he  has  always  been  my 
friend.  Neither  will  you  make  him  your  enemy  if  you  give  the  truth 
the  honour  it  deserves  and  which  you  have  already  bestowed  on  it. 
You  must  expect  every  systematist  to  think  of  his  system  as  the 
Roman  Catholic  does  of  his  only  church." 

159.  When  Hartknoch,  Kant's  publisher,  was  on  a  visit  to 
Weimar,  in  1783,  Herder  inquired  about  Kant,  and  received  this 
answer  :  "  I  will  tell  you  confidentially  that  Kant  believes  that 
you  are  the  cause  why  his  *  Kritik  of  the  Reason '  did  not  meet 
with  the  reception  which  he  expected."  Herder  answered,  "  It 
never  occurred  to  me  to  intrigue  against  any  one,  least  of  all 
against  Kant.  It  is  true  that  I  do  not  relish  his  *  Kritik,' 
and  that  I  do  not  like  his  style  ;  but  I  have  neither  written  any- 
thing against  it,  nor  have  I  induced  any  one  else  to  do  so.  Of  this 
you  may  assure  Kant."  Herder's  Life,  by  his  widow,  ii.  220.  Two 
years  after  this,  Kant  published  a  review  of  Herder's  "  Philosophy 
of  the  History  of  Humanity,"  in  which  Herder  thought  he  saw 
evidences  of  bitterness  towards  himself,  and  he  regarded  it  as 
proof  that  Kant  was  displeased  because  he  did  not  publicly  praise 
his  books,  223. 

160.  *  Life  of  Herder,'  ii.  240—245.  These  views  probably 
belong  to  the  year  1790. 

161.  Anonymous  Biography,  published  by  Weigel,  ii.  241.  On 
page  239,  the  same  writer  states  that  he  once  met  a  former  pupil  of 
Kant  who  spoke  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm  of  his  rare  talents  and 
his  excellent  character.  *'  He  showed  me  how  this  philosophy  must 
affect  all  the  sciences  and  all  men,  and  that  through  it  a  change  in 
the  national  mode  of  thinking  was  unavoidable.  '  Friend  ! '  he  finally 
exclaimed,  ^  if  this  system,  united  with  the  philosophy  of  Socrates  and 
the  properly-understood  Gospel  of  Christ,  does  not  ennoble  the 
human  family,  I  shall  despair  of  the  much  praised  capacity  of  my  race 

for  culture,' " 

162.  Staudlin,  *'  Geschichte  und  Geist  des  Skeptizismus,"  1794,  ii. 

269. 

163.  There  is  a  book  in  the  Berlin  Royal  Library  which  is  pro- 
bably the  one  meant.     Its  title  is,  "  F.  A.  Nitzch,  late  Lecturer  of 


y 


:|i 


-; 


472 


THE    LIFE    OF    IMMANUEL    KANT. 


the  Latin  language  at  Konigsberg.  A  general  and  introductory  view 
of  Prof.  Kant's  Principles  concerning  Man,  the  World  and  the 
Deity.  London,  1796."  The  next  iDook  on  the  Kantian  philosophy 
in  the  English  language  in  that  library,  is  one  by  Thomas  Davies, 
1863,  which  was  printed  in  Gottingen.  The  catalogue  of  that 
library  gives  the  titles  of  151  works,  some  comprising  a  number  of 
volumes,  devoted  exclusively  to  Kant's  philosophy.  They  are  in  the 
German,  Latin,  English,  and  French  languages,  and  some  of  them 
have  appeared  in  a  number  of  editions.  There  are,  of  course,  thou- 
sands of  other  works  which  discuss  that  philosophy,  such  as  histories 
of  philosophy,  and  works  in  all  departments  of  science,  morals,  and 
religion.  Of  these  151,  only  five  are  English;  three  of  these  are 
since  1871,  and  are  by  David  Rowland,  Edward  Caird,  and  Robert 

Adamson. 

164.  "  Elements  of  the  Critical  Philosophy."  B.  A.  F.  M.  Willich. 

London,  1798. 

165.  "Encyclopaedia  or  a  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Sciences,  and  Mis- 
cellaneous Literature."  The  extract  is  from  the  Preface,  which 
promises  a  summary  of  Kant's  philosophy  in  a  supplementary  volume. 
As  I  have  not  the  original,  the  text  gives  a  translation  from  a 
German  translation  in  Reicke,  16. 

166.  Prof  Dr.  Julius  Walter,  in   his  address  "  Zum  Gedachtniss 
Kant's,"  1881,  says  that  amid  the  events  of  the  day  Kant's   death 
was    scarcely    noticed   in    Germany,  and   continues:    "Die    Schule 
besteht  zwar  in  einzelnen  Vertretern  bis  in  das  zweite,  dritte,  ja 
vierte  Jahrzehnt  noch   fort;    aber   die   Diskussion    der  kantischen 
Lehren,  die  eine  Fortbildung   derselben  bezweckte,  tritt  mit   dem 
neuen  Jahrhundert  in   augenfalliger    Weise  zuriick.      Nur  wenig 
Schriften,  einzelne    verlorene  Dissertationen  beziehen  sich    direkt 
aufKant;  so  dass  die   Stille   der  ersten  Decennien  die  Behauptung 
der   neuen    Koryphaen  nur  zu  sehr   zu  bewahrheiten    schien,   die 
Philosophic  Kant's  sei  ein   uberwundener  Standpunkt.  .  .  .  Als  die 
Schule  Hegel's  auf  der  Hohe  ihrer  Entwicklung  stand,  um  das  Jahr 
1840,  war  von  kantischer  Philosophic  nur  noch  in  so  fern  die  Rede, 
als  etwa  dieses  oder  jenes  System  zu  anderen  in  Gegensatz  trat  und 
hierbei  sich  auf  Kant  zu   berufen  Gelegenheit  nahm.     Wahrend  die 
benachbarten  Nationen  allererst  schiichternen  Muthes  sie  griindlich 
kennen  zu  lernen  beginnen,  ist  sie  in  Deutschland  scheinbar  verges- 
sen."  26,  27. 

In  1851  Rosenkranz  made  a  statement  (N.P.P.B.  xi.  160,  162) 
respecting  the  schools  to  which  the  professors  of  philosophy  in  Ger- 
many at  that  time  belonged.     Twenty-nine  of  these  professors   in 


APPENDIX. 


473 


Prussia  were  classified  as  follows:  One  Platonist,  two  Aristotelians, 
one  historico-critical,  one  scholastic,  two  Guentherians,  four  Kantians, 
three  eclectics,  three  Herbartians,  two  followers  of  Schelling,  and  ten 
Hegelians.  In  the  rest  of  Germany  there  was  not  a  single  Kantian 
professor  of  philosophy,  and  in  Konigsberg  there  had  not  been  one 
for  twenty  years. 

167.  Probably  few  could  be  found  in  Germany  who  would  be 
willing  to  go  as  far  as  an  English  admirer  of  Kant,  who  says, 
"  What  Kant  has  done  no  one  need  do  over  again."  Caird  on  Kant's 
Philosophy,  125.  Many  more  will  be  ready  to  agree  with  Schubert, 
who  said  in  Konigsberg  (P.P.B.,  1833,  13),  "It  would  be  a  dis- 
grace to  attempt  to  belittle  Kant  in  the  place  where  the  sublime 
thinker  lived.  But  to  make  his  philosophy  final  now  and  for  ever, 
could  only  be  the  notion  of  a  Kantian  who,  since  Kant  is  to  be 
exonerated  from  all  despotism  in  the  dominion  of  mind,  would  arouse 
to  indignation  the  honourable  shade  of  the  Renewer  of  philosophy." 

168.  In  his  Life  by  Huber,  21,  it  is  said,  "In  physics,  mathema- 
tics, astronomy,  and  philosophy,  he  deserves  one  of  the  first  places. 
In  these,  the  highest  sciences,  his  name  is  placed  beside  those  of 
Newton,  Euler,  Herschel,  and  Kant." 

169.  Mendelssohn  and  Herz  were  both  Jews.  But  the  views  of 
the  former  were  so  liberal  that  Lavater  hoped  he  might  convert  him 
to  Christianity.  His  efforts,  however,  were  delicately  but  decidedly 
resisted  by  Mendelssohn.  This  led  Lessing  to  write  his  "  Nathan 
the  Wise,"  in  which  Nathan  represents  Mendelssohn. 

170.  For  these  letters  see  an  article  by  F.  Sintenis,  on  "Maria 
von  Herbert  und  Kant,"  Altp.  M.  xvi.  270.  The  close  of  last 
century  and  the  beginning  of  this  was  a  strange  era  of  suicide  in 
Germany,  especially  among  young  women,  a  tendency  partly  repre- 
sented and  partly  promoted  by  "  The  Sorrows  of  Young  Werther." 
Sintenis  says  that  this  era  began  with  Miss  von  Lassberg,  in  1788, 
and  ended  with  the  unfortunate  Louise  Brachmann,  in  1822.  The 
brother  of  the  above-mentioned  Maria  was  another  warm  admirer  of 
the^Kritik."  His  disposition  was  much  like  that  of  his  sister; 
he  suffered  greatly  from  ill-health,  was  extremely  melancholy,  and 
between  his  high  moral  ideas  and  his  real  life  there  was  a  strange 
contrast.  To  Erhard  he  wrote,  October  7th,  1804,  of  his  sister: 
"  She  left  this  world  a  heroine."  And  speaking  of  another  world, 
he  says,  "  Whether  there  is  another,  the  wisest  want  to  know 
speedily."     He  ended  his  own  sufferings  by  suicide,  March  13th, 

1811. 

171.  In  Altp.  M.  ix..  Professor  Dr.  Bohn  has  an  article  on  Kant's 


^74 


TBE   LIFE    OF   IMMANUEL    KANT. 


^•elation  to  medicine,  in  which  he  expresses  the  opinion  that  Kant's  con- 
dition, late  in  life,  cannot  be  attributed  to  old  age  or  senility,  but  thinks 
that  at  that  time  the  brain  must  have  been  diseased.  The  disease,  he 
thinks,  was  one  discovered  some  years  ago  as  an  inflammation  of 
the  inner  surface  of  the  membrane  of  the  brain,  "  Pachymeningitis 
interna,"  616. 

172.  After  Kant's  death  several  thousand  pieces  of  paper,  such  as 
he  had  used  for  notes  of  lectures,  outlines  to  be  used  in  preparing 
his  books,  memoranda,  and  the  like,  were  found.  Of  the  blank 
books  prepared  for  him  by  Wasianski  some  were  given  as  mementoes 
to  friends,  and  some  were  sold  at  high  prices  for  collections  in  Eng- 
land. Many  of  these  papers  are  preserved  in  the  University  Library 
in  Konigsberg. 

173.  In  his  gratitude  to  this  servant  for  his  kindness,  he  would 
sometimes  call  him  his  companion,  his  protector,  or  his  friend.  But 
he  tolerated  nothing  which  he  regarded  as  unjust  or  indiscreet.  He 
noticed  that  this  servant  took  snuflf  from  his  snuff-box;  and  imme- 
diately he  offered  to  give  him  a  florin  a  month  more,  in  order  to  put 
an  end  to  this  community  of  goods. 

174.  "  Hamburger  Correspondent,"  1804,  March  31st. 


THE    END. 


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CENTENARY    TRANSLATION 


o> 


KANT'S  CRITIQUE  OF  PURE  REASOxN. 

By  F.  MAX  MULLER. 
WITH  AN  HISTOmCAL  INTRODUCTION  BY  LUDWIG  NOIRE. 

«  On  reading  Kant  we  feel  like  stepping  into  a  lighted  room."— Goethe, 

«'The  fundamental  ideas  of  Kant's  ideal  philosophy  will  remain  a  treasure  for 
ever,  and  for  their  sake  alone  we  ought  to  be  gratetul  to  have  been  born  in  this 
age." — Schiller. 

"  Some  things  which  he  demolished  will  never  rise  again ;  some  things  which 
he  founded  will  never  perish  again."— JT.  Von  Eumholdt. 

*«  Kant  is,  I  believe,  the  most  philosophical  head  that  nature  has  ever  pro- 
duced."— Schopenhauer. 

'*  It  is,  perhaps,  not  unfair  to  say,  that  the  speculations  of  all  those  who  have 
not  learned  the  lesson  of  Kant  are  beside  the  point."-P/-o/e**or  Caird. 

« Un  livre  immortel,  corame  « L'Organum '  He  Bacon  et  *  Le  Discours  de  la 
M^thode  de  Descartes.'  ''—Vacherot. 

«« ThP  hride-e  of  thoughts  and  sighs  that  spans  the  whole  history  of  the  Aryan 
worM  Ls  Kt  arch  in  the  '  Veda/  its  1  Jin  Kant's  *  Critique.'  '^ -Professor 

iTdx  3i£iill€r. 

'*  A  worthy  piece  of  work.  Its  language  is  generally  vigorous  and  direct,  and 
it  preserves  a  considerable  fidelity  to  the  turns  and  structure  of  the  original  ... 
it  may  convey  to  English  readers,  as  few  translations  from  the  German  do  a  real 
idero^f  the  original  work.  It  will  bring  them  nearer  Kant's  own  thought.  - 
Academy. 

•'  Professor  Max  Miiller  has  here  performed  a  service  for  his  great  countryman, 
whioh  as  Tears  roll  by,  will  be  more  and  more  recognized  by  our  own  countrymen 
as  havtnrsuppl  d^a  new  starting-point  for  their  thought-^^ives,  and  given 
them  tie  means^f  accounting  to  themselves  for  experience."-5n^..A  Quarterly 
Review, 

K     rtuTTTPAT     ACrOUNT    OF    THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF 

^     ^AN?      WHh  an  hS  IntVoduction.      By   E.w.ei>  C.xh.    M.A., 
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^^__ __    ^  By  Montagu   Buurows, 

Chlcheie  Professor  of  Modem  History  at  Oxford,  Fellow  of  All  Souls.    8vo. 

tiS. 

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Minister  of  St.  James's  .Street  Church,  Paisley.  Second  Edition,  revised  and 
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DAWSON.— AUSTRALIAN  ABORIGINES.  The  Language  and  Customs 
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DEAK.— FRANCIS  DEAK,  HUNGARIAN  STATESMAN:  A  Memoir. 
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DELANE.— LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  JOHN  T.  DELANE,  late  Editor 
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TosiAH  Bateman.  M.A.  With  Portrait,  engraved  by  Jbens..  llura  ana 
Cheaper  Edition.    Extra  fcap.  8vo.    6s. 

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with  the  Author's  sanction  by  L.  Dora  Schmitz.     8vo.     12s. 

x?MrT  TQH    MEN    OF    LETTERS.— Edited  by  John  Morlby     A 

price  2S.  6d.  each. 
I    DR.  JOHNSON.    By  Leslie  Stephen. 

II.  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT.    By  R.  H.  Hutton. 

III.  GIBBON.    By  J.  C  Morison. 

IV.  SHELLEY.     By  J.  A.  Symonds. 

V.  HUME.     By  Professor  Huxley. 

VI.  GOLDSMITH.    By  William  Black. 

VII.  DEFOE.     By  W.  Minto. 

VIII.  BURNS.     By  Principal  Shairp. 

IX.  SPENSER.    By  the  Very  Rev.  the  Dean  of  St.  Paul  s. 

X.  THACKERAY.    By  Anthony  Trollope. 

XL  BURKE.    By  John  MoRLEY. 

XII.  MILTON.    By  Mark  Pattison. 

XIIL  HAWTHORNE.    By  Henry  James,  Jim. 

XIV.  SOUTHEY.     By  Professor  Dowden. 

XV.  BUNYAN.    By  J.  A.  Froude. 

XVI.  CHAUCER.     By  Professor  A.  W.  Wakd. 

XVII.  COWPER.    By  Goldwin  Smith. 

XVIII.  POPE.     By  Leslie  Stephen. 

XIX.  BYRON.    By  Professor  Nichol. 
XX    LOCKE.     By  Professor  Fowler. 

XXI.  WORDSWORTH.     By  F.  W.  H.  Myers. 

XXU.  DRYDEN.     By  G.  Saintsbury. 

XXIII.  LANDOR.    By  Professor  Sidney  CoLViN. 

XXIV  DE  QUINCEY.     By  Professor  Masson. 

XXV  CHARLES  LAMB.     By  Rev.  Alfred  Ainger. 


XXVL  BENTLEY.     By  Professor  R.  C  Jebb. 

In  Preparation  .— 
SWIFT.    By  Leslie  Stephen. 
ADAM  SMITH.    By  Leonard  H.  Courtney,  M.P. 
DICKENS.     By  Professor  A.  W.  Ward. 
BERKELEY.    By  Professor  Huxley. 
STERNE.    By  H.  D.  Traill. 
SIR  PHILIP  SIDNEY.    By  J.  A.  Symonds. 
MACAULAY.    By  J.  Cotter  Morison.; 
GRAY.    By  Edmund  Gosse. 

Other  Volumes  tofoilmo. 


\In  the pt ess. 


HISTORY,   BIOGRAPHY,   TRAVELS,  ETC. 


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Ward,  M.A.,  late  Fellow  of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford.  4  vols.  Crown  8vo. 
7 J.  6^.  each. 

Vol.      I.  CHAUCER  to  DONNE. 

Vol.     II.  BEN  JONSON  to  DRYDEN. 

Vol.  III.  ADDISON  to  BLAKE. 

Vol.   IV.  WORDSWORTH  to  SYDNEY  DOBELL. 

ETON  COLLEGE,  HISTORY  OF.  By  H.  C.  Maxwell  Lyte. 
M.A.  With  numerous  Illustrations  by  Professor  Delamotte,  Coloured  Plates, 
and  a  Steel  Portrait  of  the  Founder,  engraved  by  C  H.  Jeens.  New  and 
Cheaper  Issue,  with  Corrections.     Medium  8vo.     Cloth  elegant.     21^. 

EUROPEAN  HISTORY,  Narrated  in  a  Series  of  Historical  Selections 
from  the  best  Authorities.  Edited  and  arranged  by  E.  M.  Sewell,  and  C.  M. 
YoNGE.  First  Series,  crown  8vo.  6j.  ;  Second  Series,  1088-1228,  crown  8vo.  ds. 
Third  Edition. 

FARADAY. — MICHAEL  FARADAY.  By  J.  H.  Gladstone.  Ph.D., 
F.R.S.  Second  Edition,  with  Portrait  engraved  by  Jeens  from  a  photograph 
by  J.  Watkins.    Crown  8vo.     41.  dd. 

PORTRAIT.    Artist's  Proof.    5^- 

FISON  AND  HOWITT.— KAMILAROI  AND  KURNAI  GROUP. 
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the  usage  of  the  Australian  Aborigines.  Also  THE  KURNAI  TRIBE,  their 
Customs  in  Peace  and  War.  By  Lorimer  Fison,  M.A.,  and  A.  W.  Howitt, 
F.G.S.,  With  an  Introduction  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  LL.D.,  Author  of  "  System 
of  Consanguinity,"  "  Ancient  Society,"  &c.     Demy  8vo.     15*. 

FORBES.— LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  JAMES  DAVID  FORBES,  F.R.S.. 
late  Principal  of  the  United  College  in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews.  By 
J.  C.  Shairp,  LL.D.,  Principal  of  the  United  College  in  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  ;  P.  G.  Tait,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh;  and  A.  Adams-Reilly,  F.R.G.S.  With  Portraits,  Map,  and 
Illustrations.    8vo.     idy. 


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FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI. 

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FREEMAN.— Works  by  Edw.\rd  A.  Freeman,  D.CL.,  LL.D.  :— HIS- 
TORICAL ESSAYS.  Third  Edition.  8vo.  10*.  td. 
"Contents:— I.  "The  Mythical  and  Romantic  Elements  in  Early  English 
History"  II.  "  The  Continuity  of  English  History ;  "  III.  "The  Relations  between 
the  Crowns  of  England  and  Scotland;"  IV.  "St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  and  his 
Biographers;  "  V.  "The  Reign  of  Edward  the  Third;"  VI.  "The  Holy  Roman 
Empire;"  VII.  "The  Franks  and  the  Gauls;"  VIII.  "The  Early  Sieges  of 
Pans;"  IX.  "  Frederick  the  First,  King  of  Italy;"  X.  "The  Emperor  Frederick 
the  Second;"  XL  "  Charles  the  Bold;  "  XII.  "  Presidential  Government. 

HISTORICAL  ESSAYS.  Second  Series  Second  Edition,  Enlarged.  8vo. 
lOJ.  td. 

The  principal  Essays  are :—" Ancient  Greece  and  Mediaval  Italy:"  "Mr. 
Gladstone's  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Ages  :  "  "  The  Historians  of  Athens:  '  The 
Athenian  Democracy  :  "  "Alexander  the  Great :  "  "  Greece  during  the  Macedoaian 
Period:"  "  Mommsen's  History  of  Rome:"   "Lucius  ComeUus  bulla:  lu-a 

Flavian  Caesars." 


•!«»- 


N 


8 


MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF  WORKS  IN 


FREEMAN— c^//««^^. 

HISTORICAL  ESSAYS.    Third  Series.    8vo.    12s. 

Contents:— "First  Impressions  of  Rome."  "The  lUyrian  Emperors  and  their 
Land."  "  Augusta  Trever  >riim."  "The  Goths  of  Ravenna."  "  Race  and  T^n- 
guaure"  "  The  Byzantine  Empire."  "  First  Impressions  of  Athens."  "  Mediaival 
and  Modem  Greece."  "  The  Southern  Slaves."  "  Sicilian  Cycles."  "  The  Nor- 
mans at  Palermo." 

COMPARATIVE  POLITICS.— Lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution.  To  which  is 
added  the  "  Unity  of  History,"  the  Rede  Lecture  at  Cambridge,  1872.  Bvo.  14X 

THE  HISTORY  AND  CONQUESTS  OF  THE  SARACENS.  Six  Lectures. 
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HISTORICAL  AND  ARCHITECTURAL  SKETCHES:  chiefly  Italian. 
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SUBTECT  AND  NEIGHBOUR  LANDS  OF  VENICE.  Being  a  Companion 
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"  OLD  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  With  Five  Coloured  Maps.  New  Edition. 
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3^ .  6d. 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  ENGLISH  CONSTITUTION  FROM  THE 
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GENERAL  SKETCH  OF  EUROPEAN  HISTORY.  Being  Vol.  I.  of  a 
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larged with  Maps,  Chronological  Table,  Index,  &c.     iBmo.     3*.  6d. 

GALILEC—THE  PRIVATE  LIFE  OF  GALILEO.  Compiled  principally 
from  his  Correspondence  and  that  of  his  <  Idest  daughter,  Sister  Mana  Celeste, 
Nun  in  the  Franciscan  Convent  of  S.  Matthew  in  Arcetri.  With  Portrait. 
Crown  8vo.    js.  6d. 

GALLOWAY.— THE  STEAM-ENGINE  AND  ITS  INVENTORS:  a 
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numerous  Illustrations.     Crown  Bvo.     10s.  6d.  • 

GEDDES.— THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  HOMERIC  POEMS.  By  W.  D. 
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GLADSTONE.— Works  by  the  Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone,  M.P.  — 
JUVENTUS  MUNDI.     The  Gods  and  Men  of  the  Heroic  Age.    With   Map. 
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HOMERIC  SYNCHRONISM.  An  inquiry  into  the  Time  and  Place  of  Homer. 
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Glehn.  From  the  Private  Diaries  and  Home  Letters  of  Mendelssohn,  with 
Poems  and  Letters  of  Goethe  never  before  printed.  Also  with  two  New  and 
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unpublished.     Second  Edition,  enlarged.     Crown  Bvo.     $j. 


HISTORY,  BIOGRAPHY,  TRAVELS,  ETC. 


GOLDSMID.— TELEGRAPH  AND  TRAVEL.  A  Narrative  of  the  For- 
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India,  under  the  orders  of  Her  Majesty's  Government,  w.th  incidental  Notices 
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GRAY. — CHINA.  A  History  of  the  Laws.  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  People. 
By  the  Venerable  John  Henry  Gray,  LL.D.,  Archdeacon  of  Hong  Kone, 
formerly  H.B.M.  Consular  Chaplain  at  Canton.  Edited  by  W.  Gow  Gregor. 
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GRAY  (MRS.)— FOURTEEN  MONTHS  IN  CANTON.  By  Mrs.  Gray. 
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THE  MAKING  OF  ENGLAND 

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ETCHINGS  AND  ETCHERS.    Third  Edition,  revised,  with  Forty-eight  new 
Plates.     Columbier  8vo. 

THE  INTELLECTUAL  LIFE     With  a  Portrait  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  etched 
by  Leopold  Flameng.     Second  Edition.     Crown  Bvo.     los.  6d. 

THOUGHTS   ABOUT  ART.     New  Edition,  revised,  with  an    Introduction, 
Crown  Bvo.     Br.  6d. 

HEINE.— A  TRIP  TO  THE  BROCKEN.    By  Heinrich  Heine.   Translated 
by  R.  McLiNTOCK.     Crown  Bvo.     y.  6d. 


i 


10  MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF  WORKS  IN 


HELLENIC  STUDIES-JOURNAL  OF.  Parts  I.  and  II.,  constituting 
Vol.  I.  8vo.,  with  4to  Atlas  of  Illustrations.  30s.  Vol.  II.,  Two  Parts  with 
4to.  Atlas  of  Illustrations.     15*.  each. 

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Hon.  Secretary,  Mr.  George  Macmillan,  29,  Bedford  Street,  Covent  Garden. 

HILL.  — THE  RECORDER  OF  BIRMINGHAM.  A  Memoir  of  Matthew 
Davenport-Hill,  with  Selections  from  his  Correspondence.  By  his  daughters 
RosAMONp  and  Florence  Davenport-HIll.  With  Portrait  engraved  by  C. 
H.  Jeens.     8vo.    16s. 


HILL.— WHAT  WE  SAW  IN  AUSTRALIA. 

Hill.     Crown  8vo.     10s.  6d. 


By  Rosamond  and  Florence 


HODGSON.— MEMOIR  OF  REV.  FRANCIS  HODGSON,  B.D..  Scholar, 
Poet,  and  Divine.     By  his  son,  the  Rev.  James  T.  Hodgson,  M.A.    Containing 

^,  numerous  Letters  from  Lord  Byron  and  others.  With  Portrait  engraved  by 
Jeens.    Two  vols.    Crown  8vo.    i8.r. 

HOLE.— A  GENEALOGICAL  STEMMA  OF  THE  KINGS  OF  ENGLAND 
AND  FRANCE.  By  the  Rev.  C.  Hole.  M.A.,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
On  Sheet,  i*. 

A  BRIEF    BIOGRAPHICAL   DICTIONARY.      Compiled  and  Arranged  by 
the  Rev.  Charles  Hole,  M.A.     Second  Edition.     i8mo.     4*.  6^.- 

HOOKER  AND  BALL.  — MOROCCO  AND  THE  GREAT  ATLAS: 
Journal  of  a  Tour  in.  By  Sir  Joseph  D.  Hooker.  K.C.S.L,  CB  ,  F.R.S., 
&c.,  and  John  Ball.  F.R.S.  W»t^>  an  Appendix,  including  a  Sketch  of  the 
Geology  of  Morocco,  by  G.  Maw,  F-L  S.,  F.O.S.  With  Illustrations  and  Map. 
8vo.     2i.r. 

HOUSE  OF  LORDS.— FIFTY  YEA.RS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  LORDS. 
Reprinted  from  The  Fail  Mall  Gazette.     Crown  8vo.     3J.  6</. 

HOZIER  (H.  M.) — Works  by  Captain  Henry  M.  Hozier,  late  Assistant 
Military  Secretary  to  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala  :— 

THE  SEVEN  WEEKS'  WAR;  Its  Antecedents  and  Incidents.  New  and 
Cheaper  Edition.     With  New  Preface,  Maps,  and  Plans.     Crown  8vo.     6s. 

THE  INVASIONS  OF  ENGLAND:  a  History  of  the  Past,  with  Lessons  for 
the  Future.     Two  Vols.     8vo.     iZs. 

HUBNER.—A  RAMBLE  ROUND  THE  WORLD  IN  1871.  By  M.  Le 
Baron  Hubner,  formerly  Ambassador  and  Minister.  Translated  by  Lady 
Herbert.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Crown 
8vo.     6j. 

HUGHES. — Works  by  Thomas  Hughes,  Q,.Q.,  Author  of  "Tom  Brown's 
School  Days." 

MEMOIR  OF  A  BROTHER.  With  Portrait  of  GE9RnE  Hughes,  after  Watts, 
Engraved  by  Jeens.     Crown  8vo.     sj.     Sixth  Edition. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT.     Crown  8vo.     6j. 

RUGBY,  TENNESSE.  Being  some  account  of  the  Settlement  founded  on  the 
Cumberland  Plateau  by  the  Board  of  Aid  to  Land  Ownership.  With  a  report 
on  the  Soils  of  the  Plateau  by  the  Hon.  F.  W.  Killebrew,  A.M.,  Ph.D., 
Commissioner  for  Agriculture  for<the  State  cf  Tenessee.     Crown  8vo.    j^.  td. 


•HISTORY,  BIOGRAPHY,  TRAVELS,  ETC. 


It 


HUNT.— HISTORY  OF  ITALY.  By  the  Rev.  W.  Hunt,  M.A.  Being  the 
Fourth  Volume  of  the  Historical  Course  for  Schools.  Edited  by  Edward  A. 
Freeman,  D.C.L.    i8mo.     3^. 

HUTTON.— ESSAYS  THEOLOGICAL  AND  LITERARY.  By  R.  it. 
Hutton,  M.A.    Cheaper  issue.    2  vols.    8vo.     \%s. 

Contents  of  Vol.  I.  : — The  moral  significance  of  Atheism— The  Atheistic  Ex* 
planation  of  Religion — Science  and  Theism — Popular  Pantheifci— What  is  Revela- 
tion ?— Christian  Evidences,  Popular  and  Critical — The  Historical  Problems  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel— The  Incarnation  and  Principles  of  Evidence — M.  Renan's  "Christ  '* 
— M.^  Renan's  "St.  Paul" — The  Hard  Church — Romanism,  Protestantism,  and 
Anglicanism. 

Contents  of  Vol  II.  t — Goethe  and  his  Influence-^ Wordsworth  and  his  genius 
—Shelley's  Poetical  Mysticism — Mr.  Browning — The  Poetry  of  the  Old  Testament 
—Arthur  Hugh  Clough — The  Poetry  of  Matthew  Arnold — Tennyson — Nathaniel 
Hawthorne* 

INGLIS  (JAMES)  ('*  M AORr').-Worksby James Inglis(" Maori"):- 

OUR  AUSTRLIAN  COUSINS.    8vo.    14^* 

SPORT  AND  WORK  ON  THE  NEPAUL  FRONTIER ;  or.  Twelve  Years* 
Sporting  Reminiscences  of  an  Indigo  Planter.  By  "  Maori."  With  Illustra- 
tions.    8vo.     i+y. 

IONIA. — THE  ANTIQUITIES  OF  IONIA,  see  under  Dilettanti  Society*s 
Publicatiohs. 

i 

IRVING.— THE  ANNALS  OF  OUR  TIME.  A  Diurnal  of  Events,  Social 
and  Political,  Home  and  Foreign,  from  the  Accession  of  Queen  Victoria  to  the 
Peace  of  Versailles.  By  Joseph  Irving.  New  Edition,  revised.  8vo.  half* 
bound.     i8f. 

ANNALS  OF  OUR  TIME.  Supplement.  From  Feb.  28,  1871,  to  March  19, 
1874.  8vo.  ^s.dd.  ANNALS  OF  OUR  TIME.  Second  Supplement.  From 
March,  1874,  to  the  Occupatioa  of  Cyprus.    8vo.    4^.6^. 

JAMES  (Sir.  W.  M.).— THE  BRITISH  IN  INDIA.  By  the  late  Right 
Hon.  Sir  William  Melbourne  James,  Lord  Justice  of  Appeal.  Edited  by 
his  Daughter,  M.  J.  Salis  Schwabc.     Demy  8vo.     12^.  (xl, 

JEBB. — MODERN  GREECE.  Two  Lectures  delivered  before  the  Philo- 
sophical Institution  of  Edinburgh.  With  papers  on  '*  The  Progress  of  Greece," 
and  "Byron  in  Greece."  By  R.  C  Jebb,  M.A.,  LL.D.  Edin.  Professor  of 
CJreek  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.    Crown  8vo.     5^. 

JOHNSON'S  LIVES  OF  THE  POETS.— The  Six  Chief  Lives 
—  Milton,  Dryden,  Swift,  Addison,  Pope,  Gray.  With  Macaulay's  "Life  of 
Johnson."     Edited,  with  Preface,  by  Matthew  Arnold.    Crown  8vo.    ts. 

JONES.  — THE  LIFE'S  WORK  IN  IRELAND  OF  A  LANDLORD  WHO 
TRIED  TO  DO  HIS  DUTY.  By  W.  Bence  Jones,  of  Lisselan.  Crown 
8vo.    df. 

KILLEN.— ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY  OF  IRELAND,  from  the 
Earliest  Date  to  the  Present  Time.  By  W.  D.  Killen  D.B  ,  President  of 
Assembly's  College,  Belfast,  and  Professor  of  Eccjpstastical  History.  1  wo  Vols. 
8vo.    25J. 


12 


MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF  WORKS  IN 


KINGSLEY  (CHARLES).— Works  by  the  Rev.  Charles  Kingsley, 
M.A.,  Rector  of  Eversley  and  Canon  of  Westminster.  (For  other  Works  by 
the  same  Author,  see  Theological  and  Belles  Lettres  Catalogues.) 

AT  LAST:  A  CHRISTMAS  in  the  WEST  INDIES.  With  nearly  Fifty 
Illustrations.     New  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     6s. 

THE  ROMAN  AND  THE  TEUTON.  A  Series  of  Lectures  delivered  before 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition,  with  Preface  by 
Professor  Max  A40ller.    Crown  8vo.    6x. 

PLAYS  AND  PURITANS,  and  other  Historical  Essays.  With  Portrait  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.     New  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     dr. 

In  addition  to  the  Essay  mentioned  in  the  title,  this  volume  contains  other  two — 
one  on  "Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  his  Time,"  and  one  on  Froude's  "History  of 
England." 

HISTORICAL  LECTURES  AND  ESSAYS.    Crown  8vo.    6*. 

SANITARY  AND  SOCIAL  LECTURES  AND  ESSAYS.     Crown  8vo.    6*. 

SCIENTIFIC  LECTURES  AND  ESSAYS.    Crown  8vo      6* 

LITERARY  AND  GENERAL  LECTURES.    Crown  8vo.    6x. 

KINGSLEY  (HENRY).— TALES  OF  OLD  TRAVEL.  Re-narrated  by 
Henry  Kingsley,  F.R.G.S.  With  Eight  Illustrations  by  Huard.  Fifth 
Edition.     Crown  8vos     s*. 

LANG. — CYPRUS:  Its  History,  its  Present  Resources  and  Future  Prospects. 
By  R.  Hamilton  Lang,  late  H.M.  Consul  for  the  Island  of  Cyprus.  With  Two 
Illustrations  and  Four  Maps.    8vo.     14^. 


LAOCOON. 


-Translated  from  the  Text  of  Lessing,  with  Preface  and  Notes  by 
the  Right  Hon.  Sir  Robert  J.  Phillimorb,  D.C.L.  With  Photographs.  8vo. 
xis, 

LEONARDO  DA  VINCI  AND  HIS  WORKS.— Consisting  of  a 

Life  of  Leonardo  Da  Vinci,  by  Mrs.  Charles  W.  Heaton,  Author  of  "Albrecht 
Diirer  of  Niirnberg."  &c.,  an  Essay  on  his  Scientific  and' Literary  Works,  by 
Charles  Christohher  Black,  M.A.,  and  an  account  of  his  more  important 
Paintings  and  Drawings.  Illustrated  with  Permanent  Photographs.  Royal  8vo., 
cloth,  extra  gilt.     31J.  dd. 

LETHBRIDGE.— A  SHORT  M.\NUAL  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF 
INDIA,  with  an  account  of  INDIA  AS  IT  IS.  The  Soil,  Climate,  and  Pro- 
ductions; the  People — their  Races.  Religions,  Public  Works,  and  Industries; 
the  Civil  Services  and  System  of  Administration.  By  Roper  Lethbridge,  M.A., 
CLE.,  Press  Commissioner  with  the  Gcivemment  of  India,  late  Scholar  of  Exeter 
College,  &c.  &c.     With  Maps.     Crown  8vo.     5*. 

LIECHTENSTEIN.— HOLLAND  HOUSE.  By  Princess  Marie  Leich- 
tenstein.  With  Five  Steel  Engravings  by  C  H.  Teens,  after  paintings  by 
Watts  and  other  celebrated  Artists,  and  numerous  Illustrations  drawn  by  Pro- 
fessor P.  H.  Delamotte,  and  engraved  on  Wood  by  J.  D.  Cooper,  W.  Palmer. 
and  Jewitt  &  Co..  about  40  Illustrations  by  the  Woodbury-type  process,  and 
India  Proofs  of  the  Steel  Engravings.  Two  vols.  Medium  4to.,  half  morocco 
elegant.    4/.  4.;. 

LLOYD.— THE  AGE  OF  PERICLES.     A  History  of  the  Arts  and  Politics  of 
Greece  from  the  Persian  to  the  Pclopc'nnesian  War.     By  W.  Watkiss  Lloyd. 
f  Two  Vols.     8vo.    21J. 

LOCH    ETIVE   AND    THE    SONS   OF    UISNACH.— with 

Illustrations.    8vo.     141. 


HISTORY,  BIOGRAPHY.  TRAVELS,  ETC. 


13 


LOFTIE.— A  RIDE  IN  EGYPT  FROM  SIOOT  TO  LUXOR.  IN  1870  • 
with  Notes  on  the  Present  State  and  Ancient  History  of  the  Nile  Valley,  and 
some  account  of  the  various  ways  of  making  the  voyage  out  and  home.  By  the 
Rev.  W.  J.  Loftie.    With  Illustrations.    Crown  8vo.     \os.  6if. 

LUBBOCK.— ADDRESSES,  POLITICAL  AND  EDUCATIONAL  By 
Sir  John  Lubbock,  Bart.,  M.P.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.    8vo.    Ss.  6d. 

MACDONELL.— FRANCE  SINCE  THE  FIRST  EMPIRE.  By  James 
Macdonell.     Edited  with  Preface  by  his  Wife.     Crown  8vo.    6s. 

MACARTHUR.— HISTORY  OF  SCOTLAND.  By  Margaret  Mac- 
ARTHUR.  Being  the  Third  Volume  of  the  Historical  Course  for  Schools,  Edited 
by  Edward  A.  Freeman,  D.C.L.    Second  Edition.     i8mo.    2s. 

MACMILLAN  (REV.  HUGH).— For  other  Works  by  same  Author. 
see  Theological  and  Scientific  Catalogues. 

HOLIDAYS  ON  HIGH  LANDS;  or.  Rambles  and  Incidents  in  search  of 
Alpine  Plants.     Second  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.    Globe  8vo.    6s. 

M ACREADY.— MACREADY'S  REMINISCENCES  AND  SELECTIONS 
FROM  HIS  DIARIES  AND  LEITERS.  Edited  by  Sir  F.  Pollock,  Bart., 
one  of  his  Executors.  With  Four  Portraits  engraved  by  Jeens.  New  and 
Cheaper  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     js.  6d. 

MAHAFFY. — Works  by  the  Rev.  J.  P.  Mahaffv,  M.A.,  FeUow  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin  : — 

SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  GREECE  FROM  HOMER  TO  MENANDER.  Fourth 
Edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  with  a  new  chapter  on  Greek  Art.  Crown  €vo. 
gs. 

RAMBLES  AND  STUDIES  IN  GREECE.  With  Illustrations.  New  and 
enlarged  Edition,  with  Map  and  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo.     los.  6d. 

MARGARY.— THE  JOURNEY  OF  AUGUSTUS  RAYMOND  MAR- 
GARY  FROM  SHANGHAE  TO  BHAMO  AND  BACK  TO  MANWYNE. 
From  his  Journals  and  Letters,  with  a  brief  Biographical  Prefece.  a  concluding 
chapter  by  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock,  K.C.B.,  and  a  Steel  Portrait  engraved  by 
Jeens,  and  Map.     8vo.     10s.  6d. 

MARKHAM.— NORTHWARD  HO!  By  Captain  Albert  H.  Markham, 
R  N  Author  of  "  The  Great  Frozen  Sea,"  &c.  Including  a  narrative  of  Captain 
PhippVs  Expedition,  by  a  Midshipman.   With  Illustrations.   Crown  8vo.    \os.6d. 

MARTIN.— THE  HISTORY  OF  LLOYD'S,  AND  OF  MARINE  IN- 
SURANCE IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.  With  an  Appendix  containing  Statistics 
relating  to  Marine  Insurance.  By  Frederick  Martin,  Author  of  '  Ihe 
Statesman's  Year  Book."    8vo.     14*. 

MARTINEAU.— BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES,  1852-75-    By  Harriet 
Martineau.     With  Four  Additional  Sketches,  and  Autobiographical  Sketch. 
Fifth  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     6s. 
M  ASSON  (DAVID).— For  other  Works  by  same  Author,  see  Philosophical 
and  Belles  Lettres  Catalogues 
rWATTFRTON-    A  Story  of  the  Year  1770.     By  David   Massok    LL  D 
^P^Usor  If  Rhetoric  an?  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

Crown  8 vo.     5*.  .,..      ,  j      1.       i? 

THE  THREE  DEVILS:  Luther's,  Goethe's,  and  Milton  s;  and  other  Essays. 

WORDSWORTH.  SHELLEY.  AND  KEATS;  and  other  Essay..    Crown  8vo. 


14  MACMILLAN^S   CATALOGUE  OF  WORKS  IN 


MATHEWS.— LIFE  OF  CHARLES  J.  MATHEWS,  Chiefly  Autobio- 
graphical. With  Selections  from  his  Correspondence  and  Speeches  Edited  by 
Charles  Dickens.    Two  Vols.     8vo.    asj. 

MAURICE.— THE  FRIENDSHIP  OF  BOOKS;  AND  OTHER  LEG- 
TURES.  By  the  Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice.  Edited  with  Preface,  by  Thomas 
Hughes,  Q.C.     Crown  8vo.     lo*.  6d. 

MAYOR  (J.  E.  B.)— WORKS  edited  by  John  E.  B.  Mayor,  M.A.,  Kennedy 
Professor  of  Latin  at  Cambridge  :  — 
CAMBRIDGE   IN    THE    SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.     Part  II.    Auto- 
biography of  Matthew  Robinson.     Fcap.  8vo.     5^.  dd. 
LIFE  OF  BISHOP  BEDELL.     By  his  Son.     Fcap.  8vo.     3s.  6d. 

MELBOURNE.— MEMOIRS  OF  THE  RT.  HON.  WILLIAM,  SECOND 
VISCOUNT  MELBOURNE.  By  W.  M.  Torrens,  M.P.  With  PortraU 
after  Sir  T.  Lawrence.     Second  Edition.     Two  Vols.     8vo.     32*. 

MENDELSSOHN.— LETTERS  AND  RECOLLECTIONS.  By  Ferdi- 
nand HiLKKR.  Translated  by  M.  E.  Von  Glehn  With  Portrait  from  a 
Drawing  by  Karl  Muller,  never  oefore  published.  Second  Edition.  Crown 
8vo.     7s.  6d. 

MEREWETHER.— BY  SEA  AND  BY  LAND.  Being  a  Trip  through 
Egypt,  India,  Ceylon.  AustraKa,  New  Zealand,  and  America- All  Round  the 
World.     By  Henry  Alworth  Mekewether,  one  of  Her  Majesty  s  Counsel. 

Crown  8vo.     8j.  td. 

MICHAEL  ANGELO  BUONAROTTI  ;  Sculptor,  Painter,  Archi- 
tect.  The  Story  of  his  Life  and  Labours.  By  C.  C.  Black.  M^.  Illustrated 
by  20  Permanent  Photographs.     Royal  8vo.  cloth  elegant.     3»*  orf- 

MICHELET.— A  SUMMARY  OF  MODERN  HISTORY.  T|^nslated 
from  the  French  of  M.  Michelet,  and  continued  to  the  present  time  by  M.  C  M. 
Simpson.    Globe  Bvo.    +r.  td. 

MILLET.— JEAN  FRANCOIS  MILLET;  Peasant  and  Pointer  Trans- 
l.ited  from  the  French  of  Alfred  Sensikr.  With  numerous  Illustration.% 
Globe  410.     i6s. 

MILTON.— LIFE  OF  JOHN  MTLTON.  Narrated  in  connection  vjlth  the 
Political  Ecclesiastical,  and  Literary  Hist  ry  of.hisTime.  By  David  Masson, 
M  A  LLD  .  Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  English  Literature  m  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  With  Portraits.  Vol.1.  1608-1639.  New  and  Revised  Eduion 
8vT^  21/  Vol  11.  1638—1643.  8vo.  x6s.  Vol.  III.  1643-1649.  8vo.  i8j. 
Vols  IV  and  V  1649-1660.  %.  Vol.  VI.  1660-1674-  With  Portrait.  21. 
vols.  IV.  ana  v.  ivj4y—  j  [Index  Volume  in preiaratton. 

This  woA  is  not  only  a  Biography,  but  also  a  continuous  PoUtical,  Ecclesiastical, 
and  Literary  History  of  England  through  Milton  s  whole  time. 

MITFORD  (A.  B.)-TALES  OF  OLD  JAPAN.  By  A.  B.  Mitford, 
Second  Secretary  to  the  British  Legation  in  J.ipan.  With  upwards  of  30  Illus- 
ti^tions.  drawn^and  cut  on  Wood  by  Japanese  Artists.  New  and  Cheaper 
Edition.     Crown  8vo.     6j. 

MONTEIRO.— ANGOLA  AND  THE  RIVER  CONGO.  By  Joachim 
MoNTEiRO.  With  numerous  Illustrations  from  Sketches  taken  on  the  spot,  and 
a  Map.     Two  Vols.     Crown  8vo.     2  if. 


HISTORY,  BIOGRAPHY,   TRAVELS,   ETC. 


>5 


MOSELEY.— NOTES  BY  A  NATURALIST  ON  THE  CHALLENGFR  - 
being  an  Account  of  various  Observations  made  during  the  Voyage  of  H.M.S* 
C/ta//e;/^^er  Round   the   Woild   in    1872-76.      By   H     N.    Moseiey     F  R  S 
anrWoodcm^'s^  ^W^^z" f  ^^  °^  '^^  C/4a//^«^^r.     With  Maps.  Coloured  Plates] 


^^«^«^^-"^^^P-^^^^?J.  ^^    J^U^^C  AND    MUSICIANS   (a.d.   1450- 

r^J^L  n^rf'^'Ti?'  ^/"[^"'o  ^"^l'^??  .^'?,1  ^°''^^^"-  Edited  by  George 
Gro\^D.C.L.  Three  Vols.  8vo  With  Illustrations  and  Woodcuts.  Parts 
1.  to  XIV.,  3^.  6d.  each.     Vols.  I.  and  II.  8vo.  21^.  each. 

Vol.  I.— A  to  Impromptu.     Vol.  II.— Improperia  to  Plain  Song. 

NAPIER.— MACVEY    NAPIER'S    SELECTED    CORRESPONDENCE. 

Edited  by  his  Son,  Macvey  Napier.     Bvo.     14^. 

NAPOLEON.— THE  HISTORY  OF   NAPOLEON  I. 
A  Translation  with  the  sanction  of  the  Author.     Four  Vols, 
and  III.  price  i2.y.  each.     Vol.  IV.  With  Index.     6s. 


By  P.    Lanfrey. 
8vo.     Vol§.  I.  II. 


NEWTON.— ESSAYS  ON  ART  AND  ARCHEOLOGY.  By  Charles 
Thomas  Newton.  C  B.,  Ph.D.,  D.C.L..  LL.D.,  Keeper  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities  at  the  British  Museum,  &c.     8vo.     12s.  6d. 

l^ICHOL.— TABLES  OF  EUROPEAN  LITERATURE  AND  HISTORY, 

ad.  200—1876.     By  J.   NicHOL,  LL.D.,   Professor  of  English  Language  and 
Literature,  Glasgow.     410.     6s.  6d. 

TABLES  OF  ANCIENT  LITERATURE  AND  HISTORY,  b.c.  1500— a.d. 
aoo.     By  the  same  Author.    410.    4^.  6d. 

NORDENSKIOLD'S     ARCTIC     VOYAGES,    1858-79.— with 

Maps  and  numerous  Illustrations.     8vo,     16s. 

VOYAGE  OF  THE  VEGA  ROUND  ASIA  AND  EUROPE.  With  a  His- 
torical Review  of  Previous  Voyages  along  the  North  Coast  of  the  Old  World. 
By  Barrn  A  E.  Vo.n  Nordenskiold,  Commander  of  the  Expedition.  Trans- 
lated by  Alexander  Leslie,  Author  cf  "  Nordenskiold's  Arctic  Voyages." 
With  5  Portraits  engraved  by  G.  J.  Stodart,  and  nearly  400  Illustrations,  Maps, 
&c.     2  vols.     Medium  8vo.     45J. 

OLIPHANT  (MRS.).-  xHE  MAKERS  OF  FLORENCE:  Dante,  Giotto, 
Savonarola,  and  their  City.  By  Mrs.  Oliphant.  With  numerous  Illustrations 
from  drawings  by  Professor  Dei.amotte.  and  portrait  of  Savonarola,  engraved 
byjEENS.     New  and  Cheaper  Edition.     ^  °—      -—  '^J 


Crown  8vo.     loj.  6d. 


OLIPHANT.— THE  DUKE  AND  THE   SCHOLAR;    and  other   Essays 
By  T.  L.  Kington  Oliphant.     8vo.     7^.  6d. 

OTTE.  — SCANDINAVIAN    HISTORY.      By   E.    C.    Otte.     With   Maps. 
Extra  fcap.  8vo.    6s. 

OWENS  COLLEGE  ESSAYS  AND  ADDRESSES.— By  Pro- 

FESSORS     AND    LECTURERS    OF   OWENS   COLLEGE,    MANCHESTER.      Published   in 

Commemoration  of  the  Opening  of  the  New  College  Buildings,  October  7th. 
1873.     8vo.     \\s. 


I6 


MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF  WORKS  IN 


PALGRAVE  (R.  F.  D.)— THE  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS:  Illustrations 
of  its  History  and  Practice.  By  Re(;inald  F.  D.  Palghave,  Clerk  Assistant 
of  the  House  of  Commons.     New  and  Revised  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     ax.  td. 

PALGRAVE  (SIR  F.)— HISTORY  OF  NORMANDY  AND  OF 
ENGLAND.  By  Sir  Francis  Pai.grave,  Deputy  Keeper  of  Her  Majesty's 
Public  Records.  Completing  the  History  to  the  Death  of  William  Rufus. 
4  Vols.     8vo.     4/.  4*. 

PALGRAVE  (W.  G.)— a  NARRATIVE  OF  A  YEAR'S  JOURNEY 
THROUGH  CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  ARABIA,  1862-3.  By  William 
GiKFORD  PALGRAVE,  late  of  the  Eighth  Regiment  Bombay  N.I.  Sixth  Edition. 
With  Maps,  Plans,  and  Portrait  of  Author,  engraved  on  steel  by  Jeens.  Crown 
8vo.    6r. 

ESSAYS  ON  EASTERN  QUESTIONS.  By  W.  Gifford  Palgrave.  8vo. 
\os.  6d. 

DUTCH  GUIANA.     With  Maps  and  Plans.    8vo.    9*- 

PATTESON.—LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  JOHN  COLERIDGE  PAT- 
TESON,  D.D.,  Missionary  Bishop  of  the  Melanesian  Islands.  By  Ch/rlottb 
M.  YoNGE,  Author  of  "The  Heir  of  Redclyffe."  With  Portraits  after 
Richmond  and  from  Photograph,  engraved  by  Jeens.  With  Map.  Fifth 
Edition.     Two  Vols.     Crown  8vo.     12s. 

PAULI. — PICTURES  OF  OLD  ENGLAND.  By  Dr.  Reinhold  Pauli. 
Translated  with  the  approval  of  the  Author,  by  E.  C  Otte,  Cheaper  Edition. 
Crown  8vo.    6s. 

PAYNE.— A  HISTORY  OF  EUROPEAN  COLONIES.  By  E.  J.  Payne, 
M. A.     With  Maps.     i8mo.     4J.  6d.  [Historical  Course. 

PERSIA. — EASTERN  PERSIA.  An  Account  of  the  Journeys  of  the  Persian 
Boundary  Commission,  18 70- 1-2. —Vol.  I.  The  Geography,  with  Narratives  by 
Majors  St.  John,  Lovett,  and  Euan  Smith,  and  an  Introduction  by  Major- 
General  Sir  Frederic  Goldsmid,  C.B.,  K.C.SL,  British  Commissioner  and 
Arbitrator.  With  Maps  and  Illustrations.— Vol.  II.  The  Zoology  and  Geology. 
By  W.  T.  Blandford.  A.R.S.M.,  F  R.S.  With  Coloured  Illustrations.  Two 
Vols.     8vo.     42J. 

PHEAR.— THE  ARYAN  VILLAGE  IN  INDIA  AND  CEYLON.  By  Sir 
John  B.  Phear.     Crown  8vo.     js.  6d. 

POOLE.— A  HISTORY  OF  THE  HUGUENOTS  OF  THE  DISPERSION 
AT  THE  RECALL  OF  THE  EDICT  OF  NANTES.  By  Reginald 
Lane  Poole.     Crown  8vo.     6s. 


1859  to 
i  I.   T. 


PRICHARD.— THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF    INDIA.      From 
1868.    The    First  Ten  Years  of  Administration  under  the   Crown.     By 
Prichard,  Barrister-at-Law.     Two  \'ols.     Demy  8vo.     With  Map.     21J. 

RAPHAEL.— RAPHAEL  OF  URBINO  AND  HIS  FATHER  GIOVANNI 
SANTI.  By  J.  D.  Passavant,  formerly  Director  of  the  Museum  at  Frank- 
fort. With  Twenty  Permanent  Photographs.  Royal  8vo.  Handsomely  bound. 
31  J.  6d. 

REMBRANDT.— THE  ETCHED  WORK  OF  REMBRANDT.  A 
MONOGRAPH,  By  Francis  Seymour  Haden.  With  three  Plates.  8vo. 
7*.  6d 

ROGERS    (JAMES    E.    THOROLD).— HISTORICAL    GLEAN- 

INGS'— A  Series  of  Sketches.  M:)ntague,  Walpole,  Adam  Smith,  Cobbett. 
By  Prof.  Rogers,  MP.  Crown  8vo.  ^s.6d.  Second  Series.  Wikhf,  Laud, 
Wilke»,  and  Hornc  Tooke.     Crown  8vo.     6x. 


HISTORY,   BIOGRAPHY,  TRAVELS,   ETC. 


17 

^%^OGR^E?s^IN"^SGtAND^^  THE    HISTORY    OF    POPULAR 

Press  and  T^lilhvT^SrS^'^o^'^  *"   ^^^    Freedom  of   the 

^olrtiLl%^Z  ^"^S:  "^'^'^'''-    With  application  to  later  years.     By  j' 

^'^}f^^O^T>.—coVJ^T     RUMFORD'S     COMPLETF     WORK-*?         M 
Memo.,^and  Notices  of  his  Daughter.     By  G^eSrce  "Sii     Fi^J'vols.    To! 

RUSSELL.— NEW    VIEWS     ON     IREIAND      OR     TRTQr     t  amt^ 
Ihird  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     2s.  6d. 

^^W^\^^^?^^^^??^— LECTURES  AND   ESSAYS.     By  J.  R. 
8vo      r^  6^*     ""^^^^^  ^^  Modem  History  in  the  University  of  Cambridge. 

Pr^S^l^^'r^  ■■~^°r'"u"  J"?P^^'^'>"i,'  '•  "^^^  ^'^^^  ^^o'"^"  Revolution;  2.  The 
Poli^^m?"'^°^i!j-1^^."S^  the  Roman  Empire;  The  Later  Empire.-Milton's 
J;'olitical  Opinions- Milton's  Poetry— Elementary  Principles  in  Art-Liberal  Educa- 
tion in  Universities -English  in  Schools-The  Church  as  a  Teacher  cf  MoraUty— The 
leaching  of  Pohtics  :  an  Inaugural  Lecture  delivered  at  Cambridge. 

^^Si:™,?^^'~LIFE    OF    WILLIAM,     EARL    OF    SHELBURNE 
AFTERWARDS  FIRST  MARQUIS  OF  LANDSDOWNE.     With  Extracts 
from  his  Papers  and  Correspondence.     By  Lord  Ed.mond    Fitzmaurice.     In 
Three  Vols.     8vo.     Vol.    I.   1737— 1766,  12J.  ;    Vol.  II.   1766— 1776,  12^.  :  Vol. 
111.  1776 — 1805.     165. 

SIB  SON.— COLLECTED  WORKS  OF  FRANCIS  SIBSON,  M.D.,  Lond 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  Honorary  M.D.  Trinity  College,   Dublin,  and 
p.C.L.  Durham,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  &c.     Edited  by 
William  M.  Ord,  M.D.    With  Illustrations.     Four  Volumes.    8vo.     3/.  3^. 

SIME.— HISTORY  OF  GERMANY.  By  James  Sime.  M.A.  i8mo.  3^. 
Being  Vol.  V.  of  the  Historical  Course  for  Schools.  Edited  by  Edward  A. 
Freeman,  D.CL. 

SQUIER.— PERU:  INCIDENTS  OF  TRAVEL  AND  EXPLORATION 
IN  THE  LAND  OF  THE  INCAS.  By  E.  G.  Squier,  M.A.,  F.S.A., 
late   U.S.    Commissioner   to  Peru.      With  300   Illustrations.     Second   Edition. 

8vO.       215. 

ST.  ANSELM.— By  the  Very  Rev.  R.  W.  Church,  M.A.,Dean  of  St.  Paul's. 
New  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     6s.     (Biographical  Series.) 

ST ATHAM. —BLACKS,  BOERS,  AND  BRITISH:  A  Three-Comered 
Problem.     By  F.  R.  Statham.     Crown  8vo.     6s. 

STEVENSON.— HOUSE  ARCHITECTURE.  By  J.  J.  Stevenson, 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  British  Architects.  With  numerous  Illustra- 
tions. Royal  8vo.  2  Vols.  i&r.  each.  Vol.  I.  Architecture.  Vol.  II.  House 
Planning. 

STRANGFORD.— EGYPTIAN  SHRINES  AND  SYRIAN  SEPUL- 
CHRES, including  a  Visit  to  Palmyra.  By  Emily  A.  Beaufort  (Viscountess 
Strangford),  Author  of  "The  Eastern  Shores  of  the  Adriatic"  New  Edition. 
Crown  8vo.     7J.  6d. 

T AIT.— AN  ANALYSIS  OF  ENGLISH  HISTORY,  based  upon  Green's 
"  Short  History  of  the  English  People."  By  C  W.  A.  Tait,  M.A.,  Assistant 
Master,  Clifton  College.     Crown  8vo.     3*.  6d, 

b 


i8 


MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF 


TAIT.— CATHARINE  AND  CRAUFURD  TAIT  WIFE  AND  SON  OF 
ARCHIBALD  CAMPBKLL,  ARCHBISHOP  OF  CANTERBURY:  a 
Memoir,  Edited,  at  the  request  of  th-;  Archbishop,  by  the  Rev.  W.  Benham, 
B.D.,  Vicar  of  Marden,  and  One  of  the  Six  Preachers  of  Canterbury  Cathedral. 
With  Two  Portraits  engraved  by  Jeens.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition.  Crown 
8vo.     6s.    (Biographical  Series.) 

TERESA. — THE  LIFE  OF  ST.  TERESA.  By  Maria  Trench.  With 
Portrait  engraved  by  Jeens.    Crown  8vo,  cloth  extra.     Ss.  6d. 

THOMPSON.— A  HANDBOOK  TO  THE  PUBLIC  PICTURE  GAL- 
LERIES  OF  EUROPE.  With  a  Brief  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  various 
Schools  of  painting.  From  the  Thirteenth  Century  to  the  Eighteenth  inclusive. 
By  Kate  Thompson.     Third  Edition.    With  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo.    js.  6d. 

THOMPSON.— HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  By  Edith  Thompson. 
Being  Vol.  II.  of  the  Historical  Course  for  Schools,  Edited  by  Edward  A. 
Freeman,  D.C.L.  New  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  with  Coloured  Maps. 
i8mo.     2 J.  (>d. 

THROUGH    THE    RANKS    TO    A    COMMISSION.— New 

and  Popular  Edition.     Crown  Svo.     2j.  6d. 

TODHUNTER.— THE  :.C0NFL1CT  OF  STUDIES;  AND  OTHER 
ESSAYS  ON  SUBJECTS  CONECfED  WITH  EDUCATION.  By  Isaac 
Todhunter,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  late  Fellow  and  Principal  Mathematical  Lecturer 
of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.     Svo.     loj.  dd. 

TRENCH  (ARCHBISHOP).— For  other  Works  by  the  same  Author. 
see  Theological  and  Belles  Lettres  Catalogues,  and  page  27  of  this 
Catalogue. 

GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS  IN  GERMANY,  and  other  Lecture*  on  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.     Second  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     Fcap.  Svo.     4^. 

PLUTARCH.  HIS  LIFE,  HIS  LIVES,  AND  HIS  MORALS.  Five  Lec- 
tures.    Second  Edition,  enlarged.     Fcap.  Svo.     3^.  td. 

LECTURES  ON  MEDIEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.  Being  the  substance 
of  Lectures  delivered  in  Queen's  College,  London.  Second  Edition,  revised. 
Svo.     i2.y. 

AN    ESSAY    ON    THE    LIFE   AND    GENIUS  OF  CALDERON.    With 
Translations  from  his  "Life's  a  Dream"  and   "Great  Theatre  of  the  World.' 
Second  Edition,  revised  and  improved.     Fcap.  Svo.     ^s. 

TRENCH  (MRS.  R.).— REMAINS  OF  THE  LATE  MRS.  RICHARD 
TRENCH.  Being  Selections  from  her  Journals,  Letters,  and  other  Papers. 
Edited  by  Archbishop  Trench.     New  and  Cheaper  Issue,  with  Portrait.     Svo. 

TREVELYAN. — THE  IRISH  CRISIS.  Being  a  Narrative  of  the  Measures 
for  the  Relief  of  the  Distress  caused  by  the  Great  Irish  Famine  of  1846-7.  By 
Sir  Charles  Trevelvan,  Bart.,  K.C.B.     Svo.     2J.  6r/.  I 

TROLLOPE.  —  A    HISTORY     OF     THE     COMMONWEALTH     OF 
FLORENCE   FROM   THE   EARLIEST    INDEPENDENCE    OF   THE 
COMMUNE  TO  THE    FALL   OF   THE    REPUBLIC   IN    1831.     By! 
Adolphus  Trollope.    4  Vols.    Svo     Cloth     21J. 


HISTORY,  BIOGRAPHY,  TRAVELS,   ETC. 


f 


avnS;i';;^%"|^rT?LorDCL'TR^^^^  (s  i^.P^^y  ^^  ^^^"  -^ 

Svo.     ^s.td.  °-    ^^LOR'  ^•'-.L.,  F.K.S.     With  Illustrations.     Crown 

UPPINGHAM  BY  THE   SEA      a  xt*t>^ 

AT  BORTH.     By  J.  HS      Crown  fv^l^fil^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  YEAR 

^^bJg  f  pEMMANUEL    II.,    FIRST    KING    OF    ITALY 

ByG.S.GoDKiN.     New  Edition.     Crown  Svo.     6..     (Biographical  Seriel.) 

"^  uL'-t^fhrBl^^f  ^ai^i^  ^B?rH"H!;\^.^..X\^"^  °^  \  5-^ 

H^^toiy  ^and  English   Literature   in   Owens^  Colbge^^rnch^sfer.  ^'tT^£. 

^rin^fof^^'^~^^r^^i?^^^T?-  ^^  A  DIPLOMATIST.  Being  recollec- 
tions of  Germany  founded  on  Diaries  kept  during  the  vears  iSlo-fR^n       R« 

John^Ward,  C.B.,  late  H.M.  Minister-Lsident^o  t\J  HanL'^To^n's?-  [8v.! 

WARD.-ENGLISH  POETS  Selections,  with  Critical  Introductions  by 
various  wri^rs,  and  a  General  Introduction  by  Matthew  Arnold.  Edited 
by  T.  H.  Ward,  M.A.     4  vols.   Crown  Svo.     ^s.  6d.  each. 

Vol.      I.  CHAUCER  to  DONNE. 

Vol.    II.  BEN  JONSON  to  DRYDEN. 

Vol.  III.  ADDISON  to  BLAKE. 

Vol.  IV.  WORDSWORTH  to  SYDNEY  DOBELL. 

WATERTON  (C.)— WANDERINGS  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA.  THE 
NORTH-WEST  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  AND  THE  ANTILLES 
IN  1S12,  1816, 1820,  and  1824.  With  Original  Instructions  for  the  perfect  Preser- 
vation of  Birds,  etc.,  for  Cabinets  of  Natural  History.  By  Charles  Waterton. 
New  Edition,  edited  with  Biographical  Introduction  and  Explanatory  Index 
by  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Wood.  M.A.  With  100  Illustrations.  Cheaper  Edition. 
Crown  Svo.    6s. 

WATSON.— A  VISIT  TO  WAZAN,  THE  SACRED  CITY  OF  MOROCCO 
By  Robert  Spence  Watson.    With  Illustrations.    Svo.     10s.  6d. 

WESLEY.— JOHN  WESLEY  AND  THE  EVANGELICAL  REACTION 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century.    By  Julia  Wedgwood.    Crown  Svo.    Sj.  6d. 

WHEELER.— A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  INDIA,  AND  OF  THE 
FRONTIER  STATES  OF  AFGHANISTAN,  NEPAUL,  AND  BURMA. 
By  J.  Talbovs  Wheeler,  late  Assistant-Secretary  to  the  Government  of 
India,  Foreign  Department,  and  late  Secretary  to  the  Government  of  British 
Burma.     With  Maps  and  Tables.     Crown  Svo.     12s. 

b  2 


. 


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MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF 


WHE^VELL.— WILLIAM  WHEWELL,  D.D.,  late  Master  of  Tnntty 
College,  Cambridge.  An  account  of  his  Writings,  with  Selections  from  his 
Literar>'  and  Scientific  correspondence.  }>y  I.  Todhunter,  M.A.,  f.K.b. 
Two  Vols.     8vo.     255. 

WHITE.— THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  AND  ANTrQUlTmS  OF  SEl- 
BORNE.  By  Gilbert  White.  Edited,  with  Memoir  and  Notes,  by  F^ank. 
BucKLAND  A  Chapter  on  Antiquities  by  Lord  Selborne,  and  numerous  Il- 
lustrations by  P.  H.  Delamottk.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition.  Crown  8vo.  6s. 
Also  a  Large  Paper  Edition,  containing,  in  addition  to  the  above,  upwards  of 
Thirty  Woodburytype  Illustrations  from  Drawings  by  Prof.  Delamotte.  Iwo 
Vols.     4to.     Half  morocco,  elegant.  4/.  4^. 

WILSON.— A  MEMOIR  OF  GEORGE  WILSON.  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Regius 
Professor  of  Technology  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  By  his  SreTBB.  New 
Edition.     Crown  8vo.    6s. 

WILSON  (DANIEL,  LL.D,)— Works  by  Daniel  Wilson,  LL.D,, 
Professor  of  History  and  English  Literature  in  Univertity  College,  Toronto  :— 

PREHISTORIC  ANNALS  OF  SCOTLAND.  New  Edition,  with  nunverous 
Illustrations.     Twj  Vols.     Demy  8vo.     36J 

PREHISTORIC  MAN  :  Researches  into  the  Origin  of  CiviHzation  in  the  Old 
and  New  World.  New  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged  throughout,  ^fMl  nwnrerous 
Illustrations  and  Two  Coloured  Plates.     Two  Vob.     Svo.     3^- 

CHATTERTON  :  A  Biographical  Study.     Crown  Svo.     6s.  6d. 

YONGE     (CHARLOTTE     M.)— Works   by   Charlotte    M.    Yonge, 

Author  of  the  "  Heir  of  Redclyffe,"  &c.  &c.  :— 
A  PARALLEL  HISTORY  OF  FRANCE  AND    ENGLAND:    Consisting  of 

Outlines  and  Dates.     Oblong  4to.     y.  6d. 
CAMEOS  FROM  ENGLISH  HISTORY      From  Rollo  to  Edward  II.     Extra 

Fcap.  8vo.     Third  Edition.     5^. 
Second    Series,    THE    WARS    IN    FRANCE.       Extra   f<Jap.    Svo.       Third 

Edition.     5J. 
Third  Series,  THE  WARS  OF  THE  ROSES.     Extra  fcap.  8vo.     ^s. 
Fourth  Series,  REFORMATION  TIMES.     Extra  fcap.  8vo.     5^ 

HISTORY  OF  FRANCE.     Maps.     i8mo.     3^- 6^-.       .    ,^  ..    c  t.  /^ 

"  \HistdHcal  Courstjot  Schools. 


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WORKS  IN  POLITICS,  ETC. 


.21 


POLITICS,    POLITICAL   AND    SOCIAL   ECONOMY, 
LAW,    AND    KINDRED    SUBJECTS. 

ANGLO-SAXON  LAW.— ESSAYS  IN.  Contents:  Law  Courts-Land 
and  Family  Laws  and  Legal  Procedure  generally.  With  Select  cases. 
Medium  8vo.     iZs. 

ARNOLD.— THE  ROMAN  SYSTEM  OF  PROVINCIAL  ADMINIS- 
TRATION  TO  THE  ACCESSION  OF  CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT. 
Being  the  Arnold  Prize  Essay  for  1879.  By  W.  T.  Arnold,  B.A.  Crown 
8vo.     6s. 

BALL.— THE  STUDENT'S  GUIDE  TO  THE  BAR.  By  Walter  W. 
Ball,  M.A.,  of  the  Inner  Temple,  Barrister-at-Law.    Crown.  8vo.     2s.  6d. 

BERNARD.— FOUR  LECTURES  ON  SUBJECTS  CONNECTED  WITH 
DIPLOMACY.  By  Montague  Bernard,  M.  A.,  Chichele  Professor  of 
International  Law  and  Diplomacy,  Oxford.     Svo.     9^. 

BIGELOW.— HISTORY  OF  PROCEDURE  IN  ENGLAND,  FROM 
THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST.  The  Norman  Period,  1066-1204.  By 
Melville  Madison  Bigelow,  Ph.D.,  Harvard  University.     Svo.     16*. 

BRIGHT  (JOHN,  M. P.).— Works  by  the  Right  Hon.  John  Bright, 
M.P. 

SPEECHES  ON  QUESTIONS  OF  PUBLIC  POLICY.     Edited  by  Professor 
Thorold  Rogers,  M.P.     Author's  Popular  Edition.    Globe  Svo.     3^.  6d. 

LIBRARY  EDITION.    Two  Vols.     Svo.    With  Portrait.     25.?. 

PUBLIC  ADDRESSES.     Edited  by  J.  Thorold  Rogers,  M.P.     Svo.    14J. 

BUCKNILL. — Works  by  J.  C  Bucknill,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  late  Lord  Chan- 
cellor's Visitor  of  Lunatics  : — 

HABITUAL  DRUNKENNESS  AND  INSANE  DRUNKARDS.   Crown  8vo. 
2S.  6d. 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  INSANE,  AND  THEIR  LEGAL  CONTROL.    Cr^wn 
Svo.    y.  6d. 

CAIRNES.  —Works  by  J.  E.  Cairnes,  M.A.,  Emeritus  Professor  of  Political 
Economy  in  University  College,  London  :  — 

POLITICAL  ESSAYS.    Svo.     10s.  6d. 

THE  CHARACTER  AND  LOGICAL  METHOD  OF  POLITICAL  ECO- 
NOMY.    New  Edition,  enlarged.     Svo.    js.  6d. 

COBDEN  (RICHARD).— SPEECHES  ON  QUESTIONS  OF  PUBLIC 
POLICY.  By  Richard  Cobden.  Edited  by  the  Right  Hon  John  Bright. 
M.P.,  and  J.  E.  Thorold  Rogers,  M.P.     Popular  Edition.     Svo.     ^s.  6d. 

COSSA. — GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  By 
Dr.  LuiGi  CossA,  Professor  of  Political  Economy  in  the  University  of  Pavia. 
Translated  from  the  Second  Italian  Edition.  With  a  Preface  by  W.  Stanley 
Jevons,  F.R.S.    Crown  Svo.     ^s.  6d. 

FA WCETT. —Works  by  Right  Hon.  Henry  Fawcett,  M.A.,  M.P.,  Fellow 
of  Trinity  Hall,  and  Professor  of  Political  Economy  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge : — 
THE   ECONOMIC  POSITION  OF  THE  BRITISH   LABOURER.    Extra 
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\ 

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WORKS  IN  POLITICS,  ETC. 


23 


LAVELEYE.— PRIMITIVE  PROPERTY.  By  Emile  de  Laveleye. 
Translated  by  G.  R.  L.  Marriott.  LL.B..  with  an  Introduction  by  T.  E. 
Cliffe  Leslie.  LL.B.    8vo.     Z2s. 

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MACDONELL.-^THE  LAND  QUESTION,  WITH  SPECIAL 
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MARSHALL.— THE  ECONOMICS  OF  INDUSTRY.  By  A.  Marshall, 
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late  Lecturer  at  Newnham  Hall,  Cambridge.     Extra  fcap.  8vo.     2s.  6d. 

MARTIN.— THE  STATESMAN'S  YEAR-BOvlK:  A  Statistical  and  Histori- 
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rick Martin.  Nineteenth  Annual  Publication.  Revised  after  Official  Returns. 
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8vo.     IS. 

II.  FOREIGN  POLICY.     By  Right  Hon.  M.  E.  Grant  Duff,  M.P.     8vo.     is. 

III.  FREEDOM  OF  LAND.     By  G.  Shaw  Lefevre,  M.P.     8vo.     2s.  6d. 

IV.  BRITISH  COLONIAL  POLICY.  By  Sir  David  Wedderburn,  Bart., 
M.P.     Demy  8vo.     is. 

RICHEY.— THE  IRISH  LAND  LAWS.  By  Alexander  G.  Richey,  Q.C, 
LL.D.,  Deputy  Regius  Professor  of  Feudal  and  English  Law  in  the  Universiiy 
of  Dublin.    Crown  8vo.    y.  6d. 


/ 


24 


MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF 


STEPHEN  (C.  E.)— THE  SERVICE  OF  THE  POOR:. Being  an  Inquiry 
into  the  Reasons  for  and  against  the  Establishment  of  Religious  Sisterhoods 
for  Charitable  Purposes.  By  Caroline  Emilia  Stephen.  Crown  8vo. 
6s.  6d. 

STEPHEN.— Works  by  Sir  James  F.  Stephen,  K.C.S.I.,  Q.C.:— 
A  DIGEST  OF  THE  LAW  OF  EVIDENCE.   Fourth  Edition,  with  new  Preface. 

Crown  8vo.    6s. 
A  DIGEST  OF  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW.    (Crimes  and  Punishments.)    8vo. 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF   ENGLAND.    Two 
Vols.     Crown  Bvo.  t-^'^  edition  tn  the  press. 

STUBBS. — VILLAGE  POLITICS.  Addresses  and  Sermons  on  the  Labour 
Question.  By  C.  W.  Stubbs,  M.A.,  Vicar  of  Granborough,  Bucks.  Extra 
fcap.  Bvo.     3^.  (>d. 

THORNTON.— Works  by  W.   T.  Thornton,   C.B.,    Secretary  for  Public 

Works  in  the  India  Office  :— 
A  PLEA  FOR  PEASANT  PROPRIETORS:  With  the  Outlines  of  a  Plan  for 

their  Establishment  in  Ireland.     New  Edition,  revised.     Crown  Bvo.     75.  6d. 
INDIAN   PUBLIC  WORKS  AND  COGNATE   INDIAN   TOPICS.    With 

Map  of  Indian  Railways.     Crown  Bvo.     Zs.  6d. 

WALKER. — ^Works  by   F.  A.  Walker,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Political 
Economy  and  History,  Yale  College:— 
THE  WAGES  QUESTION.     A  Treatise  on  Wages  and  the  Wages  Class.    Bvo. 

MONEY.     Bvo.     i6s. 

MONEY  IN  ITS  RELATIONS  TO  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRY.    Crown  Bvo. 

js.  6d. 
WILSON.— RECIPROCITY.  BI-METALLISM,    AND  LAND-TENURE 

REFORM.    By    A.    J.    Wii^on.    Author    of   "The    Resources   of   Modern 

Countries."     Bvo.     7*-  ^^ 


WORKS  ON  LANGUAGE. 


25 


WORKS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  SCIENCE  OR  THE 

HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE. 

ABBOTT.— A  SHAKESPERIAN  GRAMMAR:  An  Attempt  to  illustrate 
some  of  the  Differences  between  Elizabethan  and  Modern  English.  By  the 
Rev.  E.  A.  Abbott,  D.D.,  Head  Master  of  the  City  of  London  School.  New 
and  Enlarged  Edition.     Extra  fcap.  Bvo.     6s. 

BREYM  ANN.— A  FRENCH  GRAMMAR  BASED  ON  PHILOLOGICAL 
PRINCIPLES.  By  Hermann  Brevmann,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Philology  in 
the  University  of  Munich,  late  Lecturer  on  French  Language  and  Literature  at 
Owens  College,  Manchester.     Extra  fcap.  Bvo.     \s.  6d. 

ELLIS.— PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  THE  QUANTITATIVE  PRO- 
NUNCIATION  OF  LATIN,  FOR  THE  USE  OF  CLASSICAL 
TEACHERS  AND  LINGUISTS.  By  A.  J.  Ellis,  B.A.,  F.R.S..  &c. 
Extra  fcap.  Bvo.     4?.  6d. 

FASNACHT. — THE  ORGANIC  METHOD  OF  STUDYING  LAN- 
GUAGES. By  G.  Eugene  Fasnacht,  Author  of  "  Macmillan's  Progressive 
French  Course,"  Editor  of  **  Macmillan's  Foreign  School  Classics,"  &c. 
I.  French.     Crown  Bvo.     3.?.  6d. 

FLEAY.— A  SHAKESPEARE  MANUAL.  By  the  Rev.  F.  G.  Fleay. 
M.A.,  Head  Master  of  Skipton  Grammar  School.     Extra  fcap.  Bvo.     4.S.  6d. 

GOODWIN. — Works  byW.  W.  Goodwin,  Professor  of  Greek  Literature  ia 
Harvard  University:  — 

SYNTAX   OF    THE    GREEK    MOODS    AND    TENSES.      New    Edition. 
Crown  Bvo.     6s.  6d. 

GREEK  GRAMMAR.     Crown  Bvo.     6s. 

A  SCHOOL  GREEK  GRAMMAR.    Crown  Bvo.    zs.  6d. 

HADLEY. — ESSAYS  PHILOLOGICAL  AND  CRITICAL.  Selected  from 
the  Papers  of  James  Hadlev,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Greek  in  Yale  College,  &c. 
Bvo.     16s. 

HALES.— LONGER  ENGLISH  POEMS.  With  Notes,  Philological  and 
Explanatory,  and  an  Introduction  on  the  Teaching  of  English.  CJiiefly  for  use 
in  Schools.  Edited  by  J.  W.  Hales,  M.A.,  Professor  of  English  Literature  at 
King's  College,  London,  &c.  &c.     Fifth  Edition.     Extra  fcap.  Bvo.     4s.  6d. 

HELFENSTEIN  (JAMES).— a  COMPARATIVE  GRAMMAR  OF 
THE  TEUTONIC  LANGUAGES:  Being  at  the  same  time  a  Historical 
Grammar  of  the  English  Language,  and  comprising  Gcthic,  Anglo-Saxon,  Early 
English,  Modern  English,  Icelandic  (Old  Norse),  Danish,  Swedish,  Old  High 
German,  Middle  High  German,  Modem  German,  Old  Saxon,  Old  Frisian,  and 
Dutch.     By  James  Helfenstein,  Ph.D.     Bvo.     iBj. 


26 


MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF 


WORKS  ON  LANGUAGE. 


27 


MASSON  (GUSTAVE).— A  COMPENDIOUS  DICTIONARY  OF 
THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE  (Fr.mch-English  and  English-French).  Adapted 
from  the  Dictionaries  of  Professor  Alfred  Elwali^  tol  owed  by  a  List  of  the 
Principal  Diverging  Derivations,  and  preceded  by  Chronological  and  Historical 
Tables.  By  Gustave  Masson,  Assistant- Master  and  Librarian,  Harrow 
School.     Fourth  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     Half-bound.    6s. 

MAYOR.— A  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  CLUE  TO  LATIN  LITERATURE- 
Edited  after  Dr.  E.  Hubner.  With  large  Additions  by  John  E.  B.  Mayor, 
M.  A. ,  Professor  of  Latin  in  the  Uni^'ersity  of  Cambridge.     Crown  8vo.     10^.  6ci. 

MORRIS.— Works  by  the  Rev.  Richard  Morris  LL.D.,^  President  of  the 
Philological  Society,  Editor  of  "  Sp<:cimens  of  Early  English.     &c.,  &c.  .— 

HISTORICAL  OUTLINES  OF  ENGLISH  ACCIDENCE,  comprising 
Chapters  on  the  History  and  Development  of  the  Language,  and  on  Word- 
formation.     New  Edition.     Fcap.  8vo.     6s.  ,,.„»„ 

ELEMENTARY  LESSONS  IN  HISTORICAL  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 
containing  Accidence  and  Wood-formation.     Third  Edition.     iSmo.     2s.  6d. 

OLIPHANT.— THE  OLD  AND  MIDDLE  ENGLISH.  By  T.L. 
Kington  Oi  iphant,  M.A.,  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  A  New  Edition, 
r^v?serandirea"try  enlarged.' of  "The  Sources  of  Standard  EngUsh."  Extra 
fcap.  Svo.     9^. 

PEILE  (JOHN,  M.A.)— AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  GREEK  AND 
LATIN  ETYMOLOGY.  By  Johs  Peile.  M.A.,  Fellow  and  Tutorof  Christ  s 
College,  Cambridge.    Third  and  revised  Edition.     Crown  Bvo.     \os.  6d. 

PHILOLOGY.— THE   JOURNAL    OF    SACRED    AND    CLASSICAL 

PHILOLOGY.     Four  Vols.     Svo.     \is.  6d.  each. 
THE   JOURNAL   OF   PHILOLOGY.     New  Series      Edited  by  John  E.  B. 

MAYbR,  M.A.,  and  W.  Aldis  Wright,  M.A.     4^.  6d.    (Half-yearly.) 
THF    AMERICAN     JOURNAL    OF    PHILOLOGY.     Edited  by   Basil  L. 
^cfLDERSLEEVE     Profissor  of  Greek  in  the  John   Hopkins  University.      Svo. 

A,s.  td.    (Quarterly.) 

PHRYNICHUS.— THE  NEW  PHRYNICHUS.     Being~a  Revised  Text  of 
The  Ecloga  of  the  Grammarian  Phrynkhus      ^ith  Introductions  and  C^ 
tary.     By  W.  Gunion  Rutherfokd,  M.A.,  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  Assis 
tant-Master  at  St.  Paul's.     Svo.     i8j. 

ROBY  (H.  J.)— Works  by  Henry  John  Roby,  M.A.,  late   Fellow  of  St. 

John's  College,  Cambridge. 
A  GRAMMAR   OF  THE   LATIN    LANGUAGE,    FROM   PLAUTUS  TO 

SUETONIUS.     In  Two  Parts.     Second  Edition.     Part  I.  containing:— Book 

I.  Sounds.     Book  II.    Inflexions.     Book  III.  Word   Formation.     Appendices. 

Crown  Svo.     8^.6^.     Part  Il.-SynUx.  Prepositions.  &c.     Crown  Svo.     xos.  6d. 
A  LATIN  GRAMMAR  FOR  SCHOOLS.     Crown  Svo.     5^. 

SCHMIDT.— THE  RYTHMIC  AND  METRIC  OF  THE  CLASSICAL 
LANGUAGES.  To  which  are  added,  the  Lync  Parts  of  the  Medea  of 
Euripides  and  the  "Antigone"  of  Sophocles;  with  Rhythmical  Scheme  and 
Commentary.  By  Dr.  J.  H .  Schm (dt.  Translated  from .  the  German  bv  J.  W. 
White,  D.D.    Svo.     los.  6d. 


'^^^^OR.^V^^rV^  by  the  Rev.  Isaac  Taylor.  M.A.  :- 
^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^C^^^-     With  Woodcuts.     Svo.     X4,. 

^fn^cSoia^^tf th^J  ^^"^^^1^^?^:^^^^  -^Hnolog. 
compressed.    With  Maps.    Globe  8vo     1^^°^-     ^"^  Edition,  revised  and 

GREEKS  AND  GOTHS  :  a  Study  en  the  Runes.    Svo.    ,. 

^cl^rT'f  ''""^^'^'^"^TAMENT.     Ninth  Edition,  enlarged.     Svo. 

^  Ffa"fv"  ^f^  ^'''^  PRESENT.    Eleventh  Edition,  tevised  and  improv^i. 
enlarged.     Fcap.  Svo.     5^  ^njut^     i'KLbENT.       Fifth    Edition, 

^  w^'^^^^'T^  COMPENDIOUS  GERMAN  GRAMMAR  Rv  W  n 
Srgrcrofn?v°o.°'6?"^''^^^^"^  ^"^^-'-^"  Mo^d^r'n'i1.^ag^erin^Se 

WHITNEY  AND  EDGREN.-a  COMPENDIOUS  rpRiuAM 
B^?F^''''^'^"  DICTIONARY,  with  NotSl'^^of  CoSe'^p^on^enc'^es'^^^^ 
CZ'LZ      T^.    ^^  P'-^^^^"  W-  D.  Whitney,  assisted  by  Th.^eSr^n'^ 

The  GERMAN.ENGLISH  Part  may  be  had  separately.     Price  5^. 


28 


MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE  OF 


THE  GOLDEN  TREASURY  SERIES. 


29 


THE    GOLDEN    TREASURY    SERIES. 

Uniformly  printed  in  i8mo,  with  Vignette  Titles  by  J.  E.  Millais,  T.  Wom.NER, 
W   Hou^  Sir  Noel  Paton,  Arthur  Hug»es  &c     Engraved  on  Steel 

by*  TEEi;^  BoL^d  in  extra  cloth,  4^.  6.V.  each  volume.     Also  kept  m  morocco  and 
calf  bindings. 

•'  Messrs  Macmillan  have,  in  their  Golden  Treasury  Series,  especially  provided 
edSs  of  Sandard  works,  volumes  of  selected  poetry  and  ongmal  compo- 
sitions which  entitle  this  series  to  be  called  classical.  Nothing  can  be  belter 
?J^  the  lit^ary  execution,  nothing  more  elegant  than  the  material  workman- 
ship."—British  Quarterly  Review. 

THE  GOLDEN  TREASURY  OF  THE  BEST  SONGS 
AND  LYRICAL  POEMS  IN  THE  ENGLISH  LAN. 
GUAGE.  Selected  and  arranged,  'svith  Notes,  by  Francis  Turner 
Palgravb. 


ren- 


THE     CHILDREN'S     GARLAND     FROM     THE    BEST 
POETS.      Selected  and  arranged  by  Coventry  Patmore. 

THE    BOOK    OF   PRAISE.      From  the  best  English  Hymn  Writers. 

Selected  and  arranged  by  Lord  Selborne.    A  New  and  Enlarged  Edition. 

THE  FAIRY  BOOK  ;   the  Best  Popular  Fairy  Stories.     Selected  and 
dered  anew  by  the  Author  of  "John  Halifax,  Gentleman 

"  A  delightful  selection,  in  a  delightful  external  ^orm^iu\\oi^\^.  physical  splen- 
dour and  vast  opulence  of  proper  fairy  tales.  -Spectator. 

THE   BALLAD   BOOK.      A  Selection  of  the  Choicest  British  Ballads. 
Edited  by  William  Allingham. 

THE  JEST    BOOK.      The  Choicest  Anecdotes  and  Sayings.     Selected  and 

'^Z^l^'^ll^Z^^^  that  has  yet  appeared."-SATURi>AY  Review. 

BACON^S    ESSAYS    AND    COLOURS    OF   GOOD    AND 
EVIL       With  Notes  and  Glossarlal  Index.     By  W.  Alois  Wright.  M.A^ 

^Th    beautiful  little  edition  of  Bacon^s  .p-y|.  -^  ^/^^  -'  ^^^  ^"^^  '^ 
the  taste  and  scholarship  of  Mr.  Aldis  Wright.  -Spectator. 

THE    PILGRIM'S    PROGRESS  from  this  World  to  that  which  is  to 
come.    By  John  Bunyan. 
"  A  beautiful  and  scholarly  reprint."-SPECTATOR. 


/ 


THE   SUNDAY  BOOK   OF   POETRY   FOR 

YOUNG.      Selected  and  arranged  by  C.  F.  Alexander. 
"  A  well-selected  volume  of  sacred  poetry."— Spectator. 


THE 


^    ??.^^    ^^  ^°i-P^^     DEEDS  of  All   Times  and  Mi  Countries, 
fathered  and  Narrated  Ane^r.    By  the  Author  of  "  The  Heir  of  Redclyffe." 

"  •  •„•  'r.°  the  young,  for  whom  it  is  especially  intended,  as  a  most  interesting 
collection  of  thnlhng  tales  well  told  ;  and  to  their  elders  as  a  useful  handbook 
of  reference,  and  a  pleasant  one  to  take  up  when  their  wish  is  to  while  away 
a  weary  half-hour.  We  have  seen  no  prettier  gift-book  for  a  lone  time  "— 
Athen^um. 

THE      ADVENTURES       OF      ROBINSON       CRTJSOE 

Cd'k  "l'  Cambrfd^e"^*"^  Edition,  by  J.  W.  Clark,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  Trinity 

'^^^.  ^^?V^^^^    ^^    PLATO,   Translated   into    English    with 
Notes  by  J.  Ll.  Davies,  M.A.,  and  D.  J.  Vaughan,  M.A.         '^^^^s"'  ^^''^ 

"  A  dainty  and  cheap  little  edition."— Examiner. 

"^^Q^    ?9^?    BOOK.     Words  and  tunes  from  the  best  Poets  and  Musicians 
Cdkge   LondT"^      ^  •^''"''  ^"^^^"'  ^^^^^^^^^  °f  Vocal  Mul^  Xb^s 

"  tiSt:  S  ette^^^^^  ^u^Jr?ie^hli:i-^e 

LA     LYRE    FRANCAISE.      Selected    and    arranged,    with    Notes    bv 
Gust  AVE  Masson,  French  Master  in  Harrow  School.  '   ^ 

"  We  doubt  whether  even  in  France  itself  so  interesting  and  complete  a  reoertorv 
of  the  best  French  Lyrics  could  be  found. "-Notes  and  QuIries     ^'^°'^ 

TOM  BROWN'S  SCHOOL  DAYS.     By  an  Old  Bov. 

A  BOOK  OF  WORTHIES.   Gathered  from  the  Old  Histories  and  written 
anew  by  the  Author  of  "The  Heir  of  Redclyffe."  ™«o"es  ana  wntten 

"An  admirable  additionto  an  admirable  series."— WESTMiN?raR.  Review. 

^    ^??^r  u^J.   ^^^^^N     THOUGHTS.     By  Henry  Attweli 
Kraght  of  the  Order  of  the  Oak  Crown.  ^  ^enry  attweli., 

"Mr.  AttWell  has  produced  a  work  of  rarevalue.  .  .  .  Happily  it  is  smaH  enrni^h 


30 


MACMILLAN'S  CATALOGUE. 


GUESSES    AT    TRUTH.      By  Two  Brothers.    New  Edition. 

THE   CAVALIER   AND    HIS    LADY.     Selections  from  the  Woiks  of 
the  First  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Newcastle.     With  an  Introdui-tory  Essay  by 
Edward  Jenkins,  M.P.,  Author  of  "Ginx's  Baby,     &c. 
"  A  charming  little  volume."— Standard. 

THEOLOGIA  GERMANICA.  Edited  by  Dr.  Pfeiffer,  from  the 
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Win^w^Sh  WuhaVefaceby  the  Rev.  Charles  Kingsley,  and  a  Letter 
to  the  Translator  by  the  Chevalier  Bunsen,  D.D. 

SCOTCH    SONG.      A  Selection  of  the  Choicest  Lyrics  of  Scotland      Com- 
piled and  arranged,  with  brief  Notes,  by  Mary  Carlyle  Aitkin. 
"  The  book  is  one  that  should  fiml  a  place  in  every  library,  we  had  almost  said  in 
every  pocket."— Spectator. 

nPTlTSCHE    LYRIK  :  The  Golden  Treasury  of  the  best  German  Lyrkal 
°    p"emf    "ircdaLJarmnged.  »i.h  Notes  and  literary  IntroduOon.  by  Dr. 

^^"b^rwhich  all  lovers   of  German  poetry  will  „eIcon.e."-WESTM,NSTEK 
Review. 

HERRICK  :    Selections  from  the  Lyrical  Poems.    Arranged,  with  Notes,  by 

"  Fo;  fhlTsHme  *«-«-.  of  English  P^^ral  poets  is  placed  within  the 
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POEMS     OF     PLACES.      Edited  by  H.  W.  Longfellow.     Englandand 
Wales.     Two  Vols. 

..  A  very  happy  idea,  thoroughly  worked  out  by  an  editor  who  possesses  every 
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MATTHEW  ARNOLD'S  SELECTED  POEMS. 

(Also  a  Large  Paper  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     12.^.6^) 

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THF  STORY  OF  THE  CHRISTIANS  AND  MOORS 
IN  SPAIN.  By  C.  M.  Yonge,  Author  of  the  '«  Heir  of  Redclyffe." 
With  Vignette  by  Holman  Hunt. 

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MACMILLAN^S  BIOGRAPHICAL  SERIES. 


31 

SHAKESPEARE'S  SONNETS.  Edited  by  P.  t^^;;::::::  "^ 

POEMS     FROM     SHELLEY      c:.w.  a      a 

A.  Brooke.  M.A.     (Also  a  Large  fa'er  E^dlliot'  So'^Tv^'.^'/^T^^^^^ 
"  Full  of  power  and  true  appreciation  of  Shelley. "-Spectator. 

ESSAYS    OF  JOSEPH    ADDISON      n  ^  i.^-   .  . 

Richard  Green,  M.A.,  LL.D  *     ^''°'""  ^"^  ^^""^  ^^  Jo«^' 

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SIR    THOMAS    BRpWNE'S    RELIGIO     MEDICI;    Letter 
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IJr.  GreenhiU  s  annotations  display  care  and  re<;parf-li  f«  o  a^^ 

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BERNARD,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux.     By  J.  C  MORISON.  M^^  N^^EdwIn 

''"xt^d'-E^ilP   ^^°N''^  ■■  =>  Monograph.     By  T.    WEMYSS   RE.D. 
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GREAT  CHRISTIANS  OF  FRANCE  •  CT  rr^i.c      ^,-.., 

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ALFRED  THE  GREAT.    By  THOMAS  HUGHES,  Q.C. 
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FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI.     By  Mrs.  OLIPHANT.    New  Edition 

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32 


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CENTRAL    GOVERNMENT.      By  H.  D.  Traill,  D.C.L.,  late  Fellow 
of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford. 

THE      ELECTORATE      AND      THE      LEGISLATURE. 

By  Spencer  Walpole,  Author  of  "  The  History  of  England  from  1815." 

THE     NATIONAL     INCOME,     EXPENDITURE,     AND 

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THE    POOR    LAW.      By  Rev.  T.  W.  FowLE. 

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Elliot,  M.P. 

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Jevons,  LL.D  ,  F.R.S. 
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